• Explain the role of science and technology in development.
Ans: In order to appreciate properly the rationale and relevance of adopting science and technology for development, it is necessary to draw a distinction between the two terms "science" and "technology". As explained earlier, science and technology are closely related and highly interdependent. Policy for them, however, has to be distinct. Science is the result of man's restless quest to comprehend the phenomena of nature. By its very nature, development of science requires a long-term planning. No schedule of time can be fixed in advance for achieving a scientific breakthrough. Technology, on the other hand, is product or process specific and not universal. Unlike science, technologies are not widely publicized and generally, not open to outsiders. The inventor guards the secrets of his technological breakthrough by getting a patent on it and thus preventing others from using the process developed by him. The possession of the patent on a technological development gives monopoly rights to the patent holder to derive commercial benefits from it for a fixed period. Technology is an essential input in all decisions relating to production in all sectors of the economy. As a result, technology is amenable to time-bound programs, policies, strategies and planning on a continuing basis. All plans contain some specific projects with some technological contents in them. Projects launched for national development have to be supported by appropriate technological inputs that would improve productivity of both men and materials. In the process of modernization, a country has to assimilate its own indigenous technology as well as the relevant imported technology. India has been doing so ever since it launched its ambitious five-year Plans. The role which relevant technology can play in improving productivity can be clearly seen from the experience of Punjab . Subsistence agriculture in Punjab was transformed into a commercial one, particularly after the Green Revolution in the 1960s, through the application of technology.
4.8 Write a note on the obstacles to Transfer of Technology .
Ans : If the experience of the industrialized countries has been that science and technology have been ma)or instruments for their economic development, one would assume that the same should be true for developing countries too. Certainly, great advances have been made in developing countries by the direct transfer of technology from advanced countries. For example, communications now form a worldwide network; certain devastating diseases like malaria, smallpox and tuberculosis have been controlled; and agriculture in the third world countries has made rapid progress by the use of fertilizers and high-yielding varieties of seeds.
The relative failure of the process of technology transfer is due to many causes, in addition to the lack of indigenous scientific and technological capacity. The profit motive of the donors of technology does not always harmonize with the basic needs of the receivers. Other causes of the failure of technology transfer lie in the social and political factors in the recipient nations. Another difficulty is the scarcity of capital. Also, some technologies are energy-intensive. In most Third World countries, unemployment and underemployment are widespread and, therefore, capital-intensive technologies are not suitable to them. Another obstacle to successful transfer of technology is the insufficient local availability of the necessary technical and managerial skills.
At present, the main political debate with regard to the use of science and technology for development is concentrated on the transfer process itself, and on the improvement in the access of advanced technology to the developing countries. The arguments used in the debate are highly politicized and centre around the effectiveness and motivation of the multinational corporations (MNCs) as the main agents of technology transfer. The MNCs are needed by the developing countries, but they are not encouraged. It is necessary that the multinationals and the developing countries come to terms. The multinational corporations will have to be encouraged to establish lasting relationship with the host country. The multinationals, as a matter of self-interest, will have to learn to balance the need for next year's profits with their long-term survival in the host country.
• Explain the role of science and technology in rural development.
Ans: Application of science and technology for rural development has acquired a special significance in India 's development programs. Rural people occupy the pivotal position in the context of anti-poverty programs. It has been well recognized that the physical resources alone are not the only constraint for development. Even if physical resources are available, their inefficient-utilization can result in under-development. Thus, science and technology assume a greater significance in the context of rural development since they can increase the efficiency of resource utilization. The areas of economy, which can be substantially influenced through the adoption of science and technology, can be grouped under production and development. Production efficiency in respect of the rural people relates to the following two aspects:
(1) Increasing efficiency of resource use for productive enterprise taken
up by the rural people, either individually or uncooperative groups.
(2) Increasing efficiency of labor that the rural people provide to the
economy through skill development.
Developments in science and technology can be fruitfully utilized for rural development through an improvement in the production efficiency of investment resources as well as that of the rural labor force, conservation of resources used by them and improvement in their health and living conditions. A great deal of effort has gone into the application of science and technology for rural development, but it has not yet produced desired results. While some technologies appropriate for rural development have been developed, their combined package (innovation, adoption, utilization, human resources, raw materials and marketing) has not made substantial change in the productivity, income and living condition of the rural people in general.
The objectives should be:
(1) Development of technologies appropriate to rural areas in the existing
Socioeconomic context of both producers and their customers.
(2) A "delivery system" or methodology to ensure the self-sustaining
adoption and utilization of these technologies.
(3) Maximization of their benefits to the rural poor.
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