MOBILITY
3.1.1 Types of Mobility
The term "mobility" or "social mobility" in its widest sense refers to any movement of individuals, families or social groups among different sectors of society. The movement in the same country from one occupation to another or from one religion to another is a kind of mobility at the national level. On the international scale, migration of people from one country to another is a very important type of mobility. In anv discussion of mobility, a distinction is usually made between the so called "horizontal" and "vertical" mobility. The horizontal mobility involves no change in the position of the individual or the group in the social hierarchy(system of grades of status) - When a worker moves from one factory to another, or when an engineer takes a position in another company, there is no significant change in his social status. This is an example of horizontal mobility. The vertical mobility, on the other hand, involves a change of social level in the process of movement. If a worker becomes a wealthy businessman, his position in the class system changes quite radically. This is an example of vertical mobility, (upward). It may be noted here that vertical mobility may involve either upward or downward movement. An example of downward mobility is a member of an upper class who is dispossessed of his wealth in a revolution and is forced to enter into a manual occupation. Modern sociologists have concentrated their attention mainly on the upward mobility. This is due to the fact that they have been preoccupied with the question of equality of opportunity. In recent years, it has been suggested by many social theorists that the degree of downward mobility might be a far better indicator of the "openness" of a particular society. The reason is that downward mobility can clearly show the extent to which it is possible for the privileged(special benefit or honour) classes and groups to maintain their status and pass on to their descendants the advantages that they enjoyed. Though sociologists have been mostly preoccupied with the mobility of individuals, it is easy to see that whole families, groups, and even classes may, at certain times, change their position in the social structure. One of the earliest writers to bring out the diverse aspects of vertical social mobility was the economist Joseph Schumpeter, who in 1927 analysed and illustrated what he termed the "rise and fall" of individuals, families, and whole classes within the class structure. In studying the movement of individuals, sociologists distinguish between the following:
(1) Intra generational Mobility. (2) Inter generational Mobility.
The Mobility is said to be intra generational when an individual moves vertically upward or downward within his own adult lifetime. On the other hand, if vertical movement represented by a change in the social level occurs from the parental to the filial(of or due from a son or daughter ) generation (mostly from father to son), it is known as the intergenerational mobility. In recent years, comprehensive national studies of mobility have been conducted in many countries, but such studies have dealt almost entirely with intergenerational mobility, investigating changes in occupation between father and son. Another limitation of these studies is that they have concentrated heavily on the educational opportunity as a major factor influencing upward mobility. In contrast to the mobility of individuals, the rise and fall of families, groups or classes is relatively more difficult to study, but such movements can be documented in other ways. An important example of the upward mobility of families is the emergence of new ruling dynasties( raajvansh ). Other examples can be found in the rise and fall of family business or politically influence. Such mobility of particular social groups usually occurs as a result of economic, political and cultural influences.
3.1.2 Historical Studies of Mobility:
The problem with historical studies of mobility is that they largely provide illustrations of various types of mobilities but do not show the extent of it due to lack of data. Such historical studies do not give the actual number of individuals or families who change their position by upward or downward movement in the social hierarchy over a given period of time. As a result, historical comparisons of mobility are quite difficult and largely speculative (theorize, conjecture). In fact, there are many difficulties even in examining the trends of mobility in more recent industrial societies. Nevertheless, most sociologists agree that the vertical social mobility (especially that of individuals) is greater in modern industrial societies than it was in earlier societies. On the other hand, modern social research shows that. Even in industrial societies. Mobility is limited and that there are no substantial differences between different industrial societies in the extent of mobility in spite of the general belief that social mobility is greater in the United States than in the European countries.
The movement of individuals from the working class into the upper class is generally rare in all societies. Comparisons among industrial societies show that the greater part of the vertical social mobility is a short-range mobility. Modern investigations suggest that one should be cautious in the interpretation of historical accounts of social mobility and undue prominence (clearly visible). Should not be given to exceptional cases of upward or downward movement. It is quite likely that, in all societies and at most times, there is considerable amount of stability. When this stability is not maintained by any formal or legal sanctions, it is ensured by the inheritance of property, educational advantages or political influences.
3.1.3 The Process of Mobility
The nature and degree of vertical mobility in a society are governed by a number of factors. One universal factor is the occurrence of individuals with exceptional endowments ( something that is settled on any person or institution) such as intelligence, physical strength, beauty, business acumen, etc. In the past, beautiful women rose to social eminence( rising above others; conspicuous) as the mistresses of kings and nobles, and in more recent times, as film stars. Similarly, men (and to some extent, women too) have risen in the social hierarchy ( body or organization classified in successively subordinate grades) by accumulation of wealth, attainment of political or military power, and intellectual or artistic achievements. Manifestations ( clearly shown) of such personal qualities in exceptional amounts are quite limited and, so are the social advantages that they bring. Vertical social mobility resulting from exceptional personal qualities is governed by many social factors. In the first place, the open or closed nature of the class system in a particular society has a powerful influence on the vertical movement of individuals. An individual in a close system encounters many obstacles if he seeks to escape from his social position as a slave, serf( one bound to work on the land), or a member of a lower caste. The ideology that upholds such a system usually tends to inhibit the development of talent and ambition at the lower levels of the society. In the more open class systems of modem societies, there are no formal restrictions on upward vertical mobility. However, talented individuals from a lower social class have to overcome many difficulties, arising mainly from poverty and lack of education, in order to succeed and move to a higher social class. In contrast, less talented individuals from the upper classes are able to maintain their positions due to their inherited social advantages. The extent to which an individual talent will lead to upward mobility is also limited by the general orientation of the activities of a particular society'. A primitive tribal society that lives by hunting or is engaged in an on-going warfare with other neighbouring tribes will naturally place a high value on physical strength. Similarly, a nation engaged in imperial ( pertaining to ) expansion and colonisation ( the act or practice of colonizing) will highly rate military qualities; and the nation that is mainly concerned with industrial and economic developments will attach the greatest importance to business skills. The general changes in social structure has a profound influence on social mobility- For example, a revolution that dispossesses ( to degrade) an existing upper class or a national liberation movement that overthrows foreign rule creates new opportunities for individuals, groups and even whole classes to move upward and occupy dominant positions. The mobility is also affected by more gradual changes in a society, especially if the changes occur in its occupational structure. Thus, the expansion of technical and professional employment involves a continuing movement out of manual work, and this accounts for a major cause for the upward mobility in modem industrial societies.
Mobility is high during a revolution and after a revolution, a system of social stratification may emerge and the rate of social mobility may decline ( to deviate) . Similarly, during recession or depression, when the rate of growth slows down, opportunities for mobility are greatly reduced. In such circumstances, the possibility of upward mobility will largely depend upon the extent of downward mobility. Another factor having an influence on the mobility, when there is little economic development, is that of differential fertility. If the upper and middle classes limit their families, the vacant places maybe filled by individuals who rise from the lower classes. Such differential fertility has rarely been a major influence on social mobility. Upward social mobility has often been promoted by international movement of population . A very important example of this phenomenon is the colonial expansion of many European countries from the sixteenth century onwards, which provided opportunities for individuals to move upward in society by enriching themselves as traders or settlers and, at the same time as they subjugated ( to bring under power) other people in Asia, Africa and America. At a later stage, with the creation of new societies by European settlers in their adopted countries (especially in North America and Australia), fresh opportunities for mobility were provided by large scale immigration.
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