AMIE INDIA Students Forum

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3.3.3 Political Corruption
Political corruption is generally the misuse of public power for private profit. Although no political group has been entirely free from jobbery (unfair means employed to secure some private end), corruption has not prevailed to an equal degree at all times or under all conditions. It has responded to various opportunities for the misuse of power reated by various governmental institutions. Any analysis of the prevalence (common) of political corruption, therefore, must regard it as a phenomenon of group psychology, conditioned by the entire cultural setting of the group. Thus, no remedial programme to eliminate political corruption can be fully successful if it limits itself to the prosecution (persevere with) of individual offenders or even to administrative organisations. Political corruption requires the existence of public officials with power to choose between two or more courses of action and the possession by the government of some power or wealth, which can be used for private gains. These two prerequisites are found even in relatively simple primitive societies. However, corruption was generally scarce (by no means plentiful) in primitive societies, primarily because of the dominance of tradition in determining conduct and the promptness of punishment. It was the British historian Lecky who remarked in his book History of European Morals that "It is possible that the moral standard of most men is much lower in political judgements than in private matters in which their own interests are concerned". It is doubtful, however, that political morality is worse than average business morality. In modern societies, business and government are increasingly placed in direct relationship with each other through various government contracts, which are becoming more and more important with the growing scale of governmental activity. Especially conducive to corruption are contracts for military supplies, particularly in times of war. In modern times, war involves huge expenditure under conditions of relaxed public control since public attention is focused on supplying the soldiers with what ever they need regardless of cost. After the war, surplus war materials are disposed of at a fraction of their cost. Thus, recognition by businessmen of the opportunities for tremendous profits during and after the war increases the strain on the honesty of public officials. It goes without saying that corruption is not restricted to any particular country or society. Corruption is an international phenomenon. However, developing countries are generally found to be more corrupt than developed ones. A recent survey of 50 important nations of the world has shown that India, Pakistan, Nigeria, China and Russia are among the most corrupt countries in the world, while Switzerland, Singapore, New Zealand and the US are among the least corrupt countries. The exposure of corruption may come through individuals (investigative journalists) or organisations. Under the party system of governments, exposures of political corruption result from the desire of opposition parties out of power to obtain power. In many Latin American countries, where elections may not be very fair, revolution is the only way to accomplish the change of government. While some improvements in conditions often result from such revolutions, corruption generally continues for the benefits of new governments. No particular system of government is a guarantee against political corruption. Corruption can be eliminated only where the power to do so is linked with the desire to crush corruption. But power itself is an inducement to corruption. As the saying goes, "power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely". Little progress in getting rid of corruption can be expected where those in power either benefit from corruption or fail to recognise the necessity for its elimination. Ignorance of the existence of corruption, widespread benefits derived from the lavish (to waste) distribution of goods, political indifference (or lack of political will) and materialistic culture are the major factors which contribute to corruption in the political
life of a nation and create tension in society.

3.3.4 Crime
Antisocial conduct (known popularly as "crime") may be regarded as a universal phenomenon or a function of group-life. Its extent, particular form it takes and the reaction it provokes (to call up or evoke (feelings, desires, etc)) are intimately dependent on the cultural status and social organisation of the group. The term "crime" is used indiscriminately by the layman to denote antisocial, immoral or sinful behaviour. What the law calls crime is merely conduct, which is declared to be socially harmful by the groups, which are powerful enough to influence? legislation in a state. The existence of crime in a community is a challenge to its members since crime is harmful for ordered social growth. Combating (a struggle) crime involves huge economic burden and enormous waste of misdirected energy. The progress of the science of human behaviour in the last several decades has increasingly centred its attention on criminal behaviour. As a result, the last half century has seen the development of the science of criminology- Official and private agencies for the study of criminals and their treatment have also multiplied rapidly during this period. The reason is that the task of dealing with crime and criminals is such that it demands knowledge of facts upon which an intelligent programme of study and treatment may be based. Given the serious nature of crime and its adverse effects on society, much thought has been devoted to its control. Two general lines of thought have emerged for the purpose of controlling crime, the ameliorative (to improve) and the repressive (to keep under control;) philosophies. The ameliorative philosophy asserts that as the ranks of the middle class grow in a society, fewer and fewer people commit crime. Moreover, as the middle class grows, more people may become intolerant (too bad) of crime and they commit offences more frequently. As a result, criminal acts that do occur can be treated more effectively. In order to control crime, it is necessary to bring about the middle class by upgrading socio-economically the lower class. In contrast to this, the repressive philosophy regards the modern society (especially in developed nations) inherently prone to criminal behaviour due to the decline of informal community control, greater secularisation (pertaining to the present world) and more egoistic (the 'I' or self, that which is conscious and thinks) moral code. Consequently, modern society may at best be expected to produce an affluent population lacking in personal restraint (forcible control) and civic consciousness. In the first place, punitive (punishment) methods must be employed to redress offences and efficient organisation must be used to prevent crime. Regarding enforcement of law, administration of justice and rehabilitation (restore to former privileges, rights,) of criminals, the above two contrary lines of thought have given rise to three strategies (or policies) to combat crime. These three strategies are referred to as punitive, therapeutic (relating to the curing of disease) and preventive respectively. The punitive approach regards the offender not. Only as justifying punishment morally, but as being also susceptible to deterrent measures. Punishment is, therefore, exercised to incapacitate the criminal for the present and to keep him away from engaging in any criminal act in the future. In many developed countries, the punitive method has lost ground to the other two ameliorative methods. As a result, the capital punishment has already been abolished in most countries. The therapeutic approach, on the other hand, deems the offender to be malfunctioning and is in need of psychological or sociological treatment. In the US, about 20% of the staff employed for law enforcement and administration of justice deal with corrections, with rehabilitation as their primary goal. The preventive approach centres on modifying the interaction of social and individual conditions to forestall offensive behaviour. This method calls for improvement of sociological environment, strengthening of social structure and development of conforming personalities. Education and recreation can play a vital part in this respect, and so can a wide range of other practices like vocational placement and community organisation.

3.3.5 Competition
Competition is an important term in social theory. It is by competition (of persons, firms, industries, nations, races or cultures) that the fittest survives. Competition arises out of rivals (a person pursuing an object in competition with another), which is a universal fact in life and society. Rivalry (competition) is manifested in a struggle among germ cells among plants for sunlight and growth and among animals, for food and mates. Rivalry is evident in the striving in our daily life and appears in every social order under which men live. It is due to rivalry that conflicts occur among primitive tribes for hunting grounds and among capitalists to bag huge profits. In the march of history, a machine process wins its way against ancient crafts, a novelty called "business" displaces custom and authority in the control of industries and a modern creed (any system of belief or set of principles) replaces outworn dogma in domination over human mind. The subject of competition has invited varied and often conflicting statements from various authors since a single explanation of a complex social phenomenon like competition are inadequate. Competition is hardly distinguished from free enterprise and capitalism. On the one hand, competition is the gigantic/ huge motor which causes the individuals to use their mental and physical powers to the best advantage to go ahead. Competition develops in the individual the habit of self-reliance. Competition has lifted the human race to a standard where the mode of living of common labourers in developed countries is more comfortable than the daily existence of ancient kings. On the other hand, competition is a nice new name for the brutal/ senselessly cruel; fact of all against all, without pity or mercy. Carried to its logical conclusion, competition may turn into anarchy. in recent times, competition has invited attention of social thinkers and activists. One group demands that competition be preserved in all its native simplicity, while another group would like to eradicate/ to destroy or get rid of the evil of competition and substitute it with a moral economic order. But since the shortcomings of competition lie in its specific performance, the general demand has been to mend the system and make it work. As a result, the arrangements of competition have been modified from within in many cases. Businessmen, for example, form trade, industrial or commercial associations (e.g.. Truck Owners' Association) with an aim to make Competition less ruthless and more rational. Similarly, farmers organise co-operatives (e.g., Anand Milk Union Limited, better known as "AMUL") to escape the tyranny of an uncontrolled market. Labourers form trade unions only to secure a bargaining power equal to that of their employers. Often, the state interferes in private matters for several reasons, to conserve natural resources, to ensure the quality of goods by standardisation, to fix hours of labour, to provide compensation for accidents and so on. But even the use of formal authority in such cases leaves the rival firms in an industry as free to compete as before. In the wake of collective action and state intervention/ interference, competition is not eliminated; it merely becomes more regulated. A constructive effort has been made to maintain competition. An inherent weakness of competition lies in its dependence upon contract. So long as buyers want goods and sellers are willing to accept money, the liberty of contract promotes order. The greed for more money makes it advantageous to the producers of goods to agree among themselves to control production capacity, to regulate output and to stabilise prices. In such cases, the state is invoked to make the rivals compete rather than co-operate. Freedom of contract is encouraged along vertical lines (i.e., between buyer and seller) and has to be prohibited along horizontal lines (i.e., between buyer and buyer and between seller and seller).]

3.3.6 Unemployment
Work satisfies many needs of the individual and the community. For the individual, work satisfies the need to exercise his faculties and to participate in the collective work of society. In addition, work also gives the individual a claim upon social products, enabling him to support himself and his family. In case of the community, work is necessary for survival and progress of civilisation. In traditional societies, in which the productivity of agricultural labour is very low, virtually the entire population must be employed in farming. When productivity reaches a certain level, the demand for primary goods (i.e., agricultural products) drops in relation to the demand for other goods like clothing, shelter and manufactured products. The production of these secondary goods ultimately becomes organized in factories and expands dramatically. As the demand for manufactured goods grows and remains high, employment in the secondary sector also remains high. In addition, there is also a tertiary sector of employment comprising of services like teaching, administration, medical care, tourism and other similar pursuits that are not carried out in factories. In countries with high standard of living, the demand for products of the tertiary sector keeps increasing. As a result, employment in this sector increases more rapidly than in the primary or secondary sector. The great shrinkage of employment in the primary sector is one of the most important phenomena of modern history. Men who abandon the soil have to change not only their means of livelihood but their residence and way of life. For a long time, the migration from a peasant culture involving millions of people went mainly towards the factories. Although the output of the factories continued to increase, the same was not the case with factory employment. In the US, employment in the secondary sector peaked at about one-third of the labour force from 1920 to 1970 and since then, the expansion has been in the tertiary sector. Technological progress would have led to unemployment (or much reduced working hours), had it not been for the expansion of the tertiary sector. The same is more or less true in case of other developed countries. The consumption of primary or agricultural goods eventually reaches a point of saturation. The consumption of manufactured goods passes through a phase of increase and then another phase of relative decline. It is the tertiary sector, however, that absorbs most of the manpower freed by technological progress in the other two sectors. The result is that employment as a whole does not decline over the long run because of technological progress. In the wealthy and technologically advanced countries, neither the size of the work force nor the number of working hours per week has shown any tendency to decline in the last fifty years. Of course, there have been economic crises (like depression and recession/ the state of being set back) giving rise to unemployment; but the unemployment created in this way was eventually absorbed. A dynamic economy requires that the labour force be mobile enough to move out of the sectors in which technological advances have reduced the need for manpower and into the sectors in which labour is in short supply. Such a migration, however, is inevitably accompanied by some degrees of unemployment or underemployment. During the Great Depression of the 1903s, the rate of unemployment in the western capitalist countries reached very high levels. In the US, the rate of unemployment reached 25% of the labour force in 1933. In Sweden, unemployment reached 25% twice (in 1921 and 1931). Even in Great Britain, unemployment was above 15% during the period of Great Depression. Since the Second World War, unemployment rates in developed countries have remained far below such catastrophic levels, but they are quite high in most of the developing nations. Even when the overall rate of unemployment is low, it remains a serious social problem. While some workers may be temporarily out of work (or passing from one job to another), others may remain unemployed for a long time. The US Bureau of Labour Statistics has studied the incidence of unemployment quite thoroughly. The figures of this Bureau show that women have more unemployment than men, young people more than adults and persons without education or special skills more than educated persons do.
Since the Second World War, the governments of many countries (especially the developing ones) have become committed to a programme of reducing unemployment and underemployment. The constitution of France explicitly charges the state with assuring full employment to its citizens. Similar goals have been set up with varying degrees in many other countries. Even, the Charter of the United Nations makes employment a major objective for its members. Different governments have followed various policies in the pursuit of full employment. One general approach towards this end is to improve the supply of manpower; another is to alleviate / to make light; the adverse effects of unemployment and underemployment. A third approach to full employment seeks to maintain the economic activities at a high level through fiscal policies. Finally, there is the method of economic planning where the government's Planning Commission sets targets for various sectors of the economy that are linked to forecasts of available manpower. This approach is based on the belief that the complex problems of unemployment and underemployment cannot be separated from other problems of economic and social developments. Moreover, all the developed countries and many developing ones as well try to soften the impact of unemployment through some forms of unemployment compensation. In some cases, governments seek to induce employers to retrain workers for new jobs rather than laying them off. The problem of unemployment is often a regional matter. When this is the case, attempts are made by governments to mitigate it through regional development programmes. The efforts to deal with the instability of employment caused by technological and economic progress involve providing information on the state of the labour market and on the qualifications of those seeking work. This is done by government or private employment agencies in the hope of directing job seekers more efficiently to existing jobs or helping them to prepare for occupation in which manpower is likely to be needed. Most countries now have such agencies, designed to bring together the two sides of the labour market. Information provided by such employment agencies leads to guidance, and guidance leads to education, training and retraining. Many governments endeavour/ to attempt to provide or subsidise training programmes for those whom couldn’t benefit from them. The use of monetary and fiscal/ pertaining to the public treasury or revenue policies to keep the economy functioning at a high level of employment has been undertaken in many countries since the Great Depression/ a lowering. In periods of recession or of growing unemployment, the government may increase the aggregate demand by expanding the money supply or by increasing its own spending. This approach was quite successful in the US during the 1960s, when a major reduction in the income tax, incentives for business investments, and a large increase in federal spending for both war and non-war purposes brought the unemployment rate down to 3.5% (in 1969). In the years that followed, the US was faced with the problem of serious inflation/ undue increase in quantity of money in proportion to buying power . In order to solve the problem of inflation, efforts were made to stabilise prices; but these efforts directly led to rising unemployment. In contrast, the French government undertook national planning on a broad scale in the 1950s and 1960s and succeeded in it. The resulting high death rate among small children in such families (poor) often reinforces the tendency to have more children and, the vicious cycle continues. Money is a crucial factor in health care. Also suitable mental hospitals, child guidance and marriage guidance clinics and schemes for the care of alcoholics and ding/ Doctor of Engineering addicts are essential. There should be significant developments in the treatment of maladjusted members of society. The fragmentation/ division into fragments of earlier health service organisations (such as single-disease-oriented programmes and the separation of curative and preventive services) is now giving way to more comprehensive organisations. Health promotion, disease prevention, curving of the ill and rehabilitation are brought together into one network of integrated services that reach the community level. Decisions of great complexity are involved in allocating limited resources to provide health services to a large number of people. In order to achieve optimum results, there should be an increasing emphasis on the health planning process and on the design of more effective public health service systems. An important aspect of national health planning should be close co-ordination between planning, budgeting, implementing and evaluating of health-care programmes. No public health service can be fully effective unless the concerned government will take care to this aspect.

3.4.3 Public Education
The essential features of a system of public education are the requirement of compulsory attendance, free tuition, provision of books and education an opportunity for all. In most countries, very few of these ideals have been realised in practice. Free education, for example, is generally limited to primary education in most countries. The additional proposal that free tuition should be supplemented by scholarships for maintenance of the students are still in the discussion stage even in the leading countries. Today there is a general tendency all over the world for compulsory education up to the age of fourteen. While the principle of compulsory education up to the age of fourteen has generally been accepted, the enforcement of compulsory attendance still lags far behind. This is partly due to poor economy conditions and inadequate number of schools in many countries and partly as a result of the inertia of parents who themselves have had no education The concept of public education, however, should not be limited to the provision of schools only. It should include the provision of all those activities and organisations that enable the students to derive the future benefits from the school work. These generally include provision for medical inspection, medical treatment, meals in school (with or without charge) excursions and, above all, adequate playgrounds and athletic facilities. To these should be added the agencies for vocational guidance and placement. It may be mentioned, that complete realisation of this combination of education and social services is not to be found in any one system of public education anywhere in the world. The reason is that the above conception of the scope of public education is of very recent origin. Although extracurricular activities such as various clubs. Boy Scouts, Girl Guides, NCC, etc are found everywhere, these have not yet been incorporated in public school systems under the control of public authorities. It is now responsibility of the systems under the control of public authorities. it is now responsibility of society to see that its members get adequate public education

3.4.4 Welfare of Backward Classes
A social welfare policy may be defined as the strategy of action indicating the means and methods adopted to implement the social welfare services the means and metnods adopted to implement it which include the following:
(1) Welfare of backward classes.
(2) Welfare or vulnerable portions of the society.
(3) Family and child welfare
(4) Correctional services.
These services include programmes which are intended to cater to the These services include programmes which are intended to cater to the needs of persons and groups who, by reasons of social, economic or physical handicaps, are unable to avail of (or traditionally denied) the amenities ant services provided by the community. In other words, social welfare service offer services to those sections of the society who need special care. The vulnerable/ capable of being physically or emotionally wounded or injured sections of population, on the other hand, include person. belonging to backward classes, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, children youth, women, slum dwellers/ an overcrowded, squalid neighbourhood., physically or mentally handicapped, women under moral danger, juvenile / young offenders, beggars, prisoners, etc. In spite of some remarkable advancements, the overall progress is no commensurate with the expenditure. There is a need to bring about a change in the existing organisational set-up for the implementation of social welfare policy in order to achieve integration and co-ordination among various social welfare services for the weaker sections. And the society has social welfare services for the weaker section tremendous responsibility to achieve the society.

3.4.5 Family and Child Welfare

Several programmes for family and child welfare have been formulated and implemented in India since independence, but an explicit national policy in family and child welfare has not yet been evolved. The major emphasis present is on the integrated approach to provide welfare services to family and children. At present. Family and Child Welfare Projects are the important programmes directed towards the welfare of women and children especially in rural areas. The Family and Child Welfare Projects normally cater to the children in the age group of 0-16 years and greater attention is paid to the children in the age group of 0-6 years. The Family and Child Welfare Projects are implemented at the block level. The responsibility of fulfilling the statutory obligations for family and child welfare under various central and state legislations rests mainly with the government agencies. The voluntary social welfare organisations deal mainly with non-statutory senders for the welfare of women, children, the handicapped and other vulnerable groups. Thus, the voluntary social welfare organisations share a major responsibility in the implementation of social welfare policy. Voluntary organisations in the society can play a crucial role in the field of family and child welfare due to their vast and pioneering experience in social welfare and their humane approach (in contrast to the bureaucratic approach by government agencies). The society has thus a pivotal role to play for family and child welfare.

3.5 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
3.5.1 Concept of Social Institutions
Social institutions are organised ways to meet the basic needs of a society. Institutions usually involve norms that guide social interactions and thus, reducing the likelihood of random or unpredictable behaviour by the members. A social institution can be defined as a cluster of norms that guide social interactions towards the fulfilment of one or more of the basic needs of a society. When these norms are accepted, persons interact socially in predictable ways that lead to fulfilment of societal needs. Education, religion, family, political system and the economic system are regarded as the basic social institutions in most societies. The concept of social institution can be broken down into three basic elements:
(1) A social institution helps to fulfil one or more of the basic needs of a society.
(2) Each social institution lays down a set of norms.
(3) Social interaction is guided by the norms of a social institution and
these norms are expressed in the roles associated with various social positions. The first element explains the purpose or function of a social institution. Each society has certain fundamental needs, which must be met if the society has to survive. Social institutions help meet these needs. Economy meets the need for efficient production and exchange of goods and services, while the family meets the need for reproduction and socialisation of new social members. The second element involves a cluster of norms. These norms specify certain procedures that should be followed like paying interest on borrowed money and buying goods at a certain rate. The third element included in the concept of a social institution is that interaction among persons is greatly influenced by social positions and accompanying roles associated with an institution. Each institution has a number of social positions like mother and father in the family, block and district representatives in the political institution and students and teachers in the educational institution. A social institution usually exhibits the following characteristics:
(1) It emerges through unplanned development.
(2) It changes slowly.
(3) It is related to other institutions.
(4) It assumes different forms in different societies.
The development of a social institution is the result of a gradual evolutionary process. In case of a family, the members of a society do not consciously agree that their family institution has to take a particular form. Rather it emerges over a period of time in accordance with several other social changes. Similarly, changing sex roles in the institution of a family in modern Indian societies have significantly influenced the institution of economy. Employment of women on a massive scale has contributed to many changes in the family institution. The norms and forms of social institutions in one society may bear little resemblance to the same institutions in another society. For example, political, economic, religious, educational and family institutions in the US are quite different from that of China.

3.5.2 Functions of Social Institutions
The term "institution" in its social usage implies a way or thought or action which is embedded in the habits or customs of a group of people. The range of institutions is as wide as the interests of mankind. Any informal body of usage (such as common law, higher education, moral code, etc.) is an institution in the sense that it lends sanctions, imposes taboos/ forbidden and lords it over some human concerns. Any formal organisation like the government, the church, the university and the trade union imposes commands, lays out penalties and exercises authority over its members. All these are examples of social institutions. They may be rigid or flexible in their structures, strict or lenient/ tolerant in their demands, but all of them constitute standards of conformity from which an individual member may depart only at his peril/ danger. Our culture is a synthesis or a collection of institutions. Each of these institutions has it own domain and its distinctive office. The function of each social institution is to set a pattern of behaviour and to fix a zone of tolerance for various activities related to the institution. Etiquette/ forms of civilized manners or decorum, for example, decrees/ to decide or determine by sentence in law the rituals/ relating to, which must be observed in all polite social intercourse. Education, on the other hand, provides civilizing exposures through which the potential capacities of individuals are developed into the abilities for performance, appreciation and enjoyment. The institution of marriage gives propriety to the sex union, bestows/ to give or confer (a reward, distinction, etc) regularity upon procreation/ to generate, establishes the structure of the family and creates a balance between personal ambition and social stability. A number of social institutions may combine or compete to impress character upon the mass of human endeavour/ an attempt or trial and to give direction to it. Thus, the state claims primary obedience and imposes some order upon the activities of mankind. The institution of law determines the outmost limits of acceptable actions by punishing offenders and settling disputes. The community is made up of such overlapping provinces of various social institutions. It is the social institution in its role of organiser which makes this world a social world.

3.5.3 Origin and Development of Social Institutions
It is almost impossible to discover a legitimate origin for such an organic and complex entity as a social institution. Its origin may lie in an accidental, arbitrary or a conscious action. A man (savage or civilised) strikes a spark from flint/ a variety of quartz , makes an image from mud or brews/ to prepare by infusion a concoction/ to fabricate. The act is repeated and then multiplied; ideas, sanctions and habits from the existing culture get attached; and gradually there develops a ritual/ relating to of fire, a ceremonial for appeasing/ to placate by making or effecting concessions gods, or a cult of healing/ to cure. In all societies, however forward or backward, the roots of even the most elementary arrangements like barter/ to give in exchange, burial, worship, work life and sex union run far back into the unknown past and embody the knowledge, ignorance, hope and fear of people. In fact, a social institution has no origin apart from its development, since an institution is an aspect of a continuous social process. A social institution emerges form the impact of novel circumstances upon ancient custom and it is transformed into a different group of usage by cultural change. In the growth of a social institution, the usual may give way to the unusual so gradually as to be almost unnoticed. As an institution develops within a culture, it responds to changes in the prevailing/ to be victorious sense and reason. The public regulation of business consistently reflect the prevailing thinking on the relation between the state and the industry. Similarly, the pages of law reports reveal the ingenuity with which the same old rules
and standards are reinterpreted to serve the changing notions/ an ideaof social necessity. In this continuous process of adaptation by an institution to the prevailing intellectual environment, an active role is assumed by the common sense, i.e., the body of ideas taken for granted by a society during a particular period. Because common sense determines the climate of opinion within which all other institutions must operate, it is the dominant institution in a society. In an even broader way, an institution is accommodated to the folkways of culture in a society. As circumstances impel/ to urge forward and common opinions in a society change, an institution held in high esteem earlier (e.g., piracy) may fall from grace/ easy elegance in form or manner, while another under taboo (such as birth control) may at first win tolerance and later general acceptance. As one social system passes into another and the values of life change, one social institution gives way to another that is better adapted to the times. An institution that survives, such as matrimony, has to respond to cultural changes and adapt to them. In the social process, the life of an institution depends upon its capacity for adaptation to changing social conditions. The same process of development applies to an institution introduced from an alien society. The act of borrowing a social institution from another society merely gives the opportunity for its modification to suit the needs of the adopting society. When Russia appropriated the industrial Revolution, it stripped away the enveloping business arrangement and converted it into an instrument to serve as a national social economic system. The act of transplantation/ to transfer of a social institution into another society may at first retard its growth, but eventually it is lively to promote it.

3.5.4 Functioning of Social Institutions
The very flexibility of a social institution makes it a creature of social stress and strain. In a stable or a slowly-changing society, an institution fits rather neatly into the cultural pattern of the society. On the other hand, if social changes bring disorder, the structure of a social institution may be compromised. A social institution may even fall into the hands of "enemies" and be used to defeat its proclaimed/ to announce officially purpose. Thus a community of ascetics/ a person who rigidly abstains from ordinary bodily gratifications for conscience's sake often develops into a wealthy religious establishment, a political party dedicated to personal freedom becomes the champion of vested wealth and a philosophy contrived to liberate thought remains to enslave it. Those who contrive rules and formulae cannot control the uses to which they are put. In the course of time, therefore, the function of a social institution may be compromised or even lost in its establishment. The spirit may become the letter and the vision may be lost in a ritual of conformity. If a social institution becomes formal, a greater hazard to its integrity is found in its organisation and its personnel. Thus, a need for law and order finds an expression in a government, the demand for justice in a legal system and the desire for worship in a church. When the government, legal system and church are formally established, various groups become interested in their structure and offices, their procedures and emoluments/ advantage and their ceremonials and traditions. A host of officials come into being, who are mainly interested in the maintenance of the establishment to which they are committed. These officials have their own preferences and prejudices and they are not immune/ free from obligation to consideration of their own prestige and position. As an institution becomes more formal and more rigid, the good of theinstitution rather than its proclaimed purpose tends to become dominant. When this happens, the lines of activity of the formalised institution may be frozen into rigidity. As long as a social institution remains vital, men accommodate their actions to its detailed arrangements with little worry about its inherent nature or its cosmic purpose. When it begins to give way or it is seriously challenged, compelling arguments are set forth to justify the existence of an institution. For example, the institution of capitalism was never created by design; but now that it is already there, contemporary/ belonging to the same time (with) scholars have intellectualised it into a purposive and self-regulating instrument of general welfare. So long as people are able to do as their fathers and grandfathers did, they manifest little curiosity about the arrangements under which they live and work. So long as the procedure of institution is unquestioned, people are little aware of the conventions and values which give rise even to outstanding achievements of an institution.



3.5.5 Organic Nature of Social Institutions
Institutional development always drives a fault line between current fact and prevailing opinion. Men meet new events with the wisdom they already possess. That wisdom usually belongs to the past since it is a product of the experience of a by-gone era. As new social institutions emerge from the old, men persist dealing with the unfamiliar in their old and familiar ways. Thus a social institution, like a living thing that it is, has a tangled/ involve in identity. It cannot be shown in perspective or revealed in detail by the logical method of exclusion and inclusion. Each institution holds within itself elements drawn from the modern era of information technology, the rational universe of the eighteenth century and the folkways of some far offcenturies. It holds many unknown possibilities, which a suitable occasion may bring to life. It may be concluded that a social institution is an imperfect agent of an order and purpose in a developing culture. It is created by both intent and chance. A social institution imposes its pattern of conduct upon the activities of men and its compulsion upon the course of unanticipated events. A social institution may, like any other creation of man, be taken into bondage by the power that it was designed to control. An institution is a
folkway, always new and yet ever old, directive and yet responsive, a creature of means and also a master of ends.

MODEL QUESTIONS
(Essay/Long Type)
3.1 Define and explain "social mobility". 3.2 Explain in detail the vertical mobility.
3.3 Write in brief the consequences of mobility. 3.4 What is understood by "income"? Explain in brief.
3.5 Define and explain "national income". 3.6 Write a note on income distribution.
3.7 What are the causes of inequality of income? Explain in brief.
3.8 What are the consequences of inequality of income? Explain.
3.9 Explain the causes behind social tensions. 3.10 "Class struggle creates social tensions"-Justify the statement.
3.11 Explain "political corruption". 3.12 Define crime. Give reasons behind crime. Suggest steps to control
crime.
3.13 Write a note on "Competition". 3.14 What are the major causes behind unemployment ? Suggest some
measures to reduce the rate of unemployment.
3.15 List the societal responsibilities and explain each in very brief.
3.16 "Public health services. Public education. Welfare of backward
classes and Family and child welfare are the major societal
responsibilities" - Explain to justify the statement.
3.17 What is understood by "social institutions"? Explain. 3.18 Writeinbriefthefunctiorlsofsocialinstitutions.
(Objective/Short iype) 3.19 What is a horizontal mobility ?
3.20 Give an example of a vertical mobility. 3.21 Define real income.
3.22 Listthepossiblemeasurestoreduceinequalityofincome. 3.23 Write the Pareto's law mathematically.
3.24 Draw the Lorenz Curve for equal distribution of income. 3.25 The strategies to combat crime are:
(a) Punitive (c) Preventive
(b) 3.26 Match the following: (A) Communist Manifesto (B) NCC
(b) Therapeutic (d) All the three. (a) Nigeria (b) KarIMarx (0 Corrupt country (c) Mahatma Gandhi (D) Tertiary sector (d) India
3.27 Write true or false:
The mobility is said to be mtergenerational when an individual movesvertically upward or downward within his own lifetime.
3.28 Write true or false:
Opportunities for mobility are greatly enhanced during a recession or a depression.
3.29 Write true or false:
The total income of an individual is the total money value of the services received by him from all sources, including his own activity.
3.30 Write true or false:
Social institutions are never the organized ways to meet the basic needs of society.
3.31 Name the odd ones:
(a) Health promotion (b) Family welfare (c) Class conflict (d) Rehabilitation.
3.32 Fill up the blanks:
The five main causes of social tensions are __________, __________,

[sivani]

Most universities offer Economics under both liberal arts (where you study it in a more academic way, how it affects society) and business (where you study it in terms of how to make/save the most money). I'm not sure which of those you would fall under. If you're a liberal arts student, then I could go with history.If you're a business student, an accounting or business minor might work better. family law ottawa

[ujjwal kislay]

please advice reference book for society and environment .
also can anyone provide with notes or tell about important topics.
pls email me on " enriquehartz@gmail.com"