AMIE INDIA Students Forum

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CHAPTER –10 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Long type Answers:

10.1 Define and explain sustainable development.
Ans: In reality, all environmental problems are development problems. Many alternate development strategies have been propounded and they are being implemented without adequate environmental safeguards. In general, sustainability implies continuity of all things that are basically positive and might be thought of as broadly desirable or admirable. Some other definitions or interpretations of sustainability or sustainable development are as follows:
(1) Sustainability is the ability of an activity or development to continue in the long term without undermining that part of the environment which sustains it.
(2) Sustainable development is the development that seeks to improve the quality of human life without undermining the quality of our natural environment.
(3) Sustainability implies that human use or enjoyment of the world's natural and cultural resources should not, in overall terms, diminish or destroy them.

10.2 What r the salient features of the Brundtland Report,”Our Common Feature”?
Ans: The term Sustainable Development was coined by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), headed by Dr. (Mrs.) Gro Harlem Brundtland (the then Prime Minister of Norway). In its report "Our Common Future", presented in 1987 (known as the Brundtland Report), sustainable development was defined as the "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs". Sustainable development, therefore, implies protecting the environmental wealth, human capital stock, land, water and air, ecological living and non-living resources, and socioeconomic resource base.

10.3 What r the fourteen indicators for “A Better Wuality of Life” as contained in 1999 White Paper of the govt. of UK?
Ans: (1) The total output (Gross Domestic Product).
(2) The per capita investment in private, public and business assets.
(3) The percentage of people of working age in employment.
(4) Qualifications at age 19.
(5) The percentage of people with longer expected years of healthy life.
(6) The percentage of homes judged unfit to live in.
(7) The level of crime.
(8) The per capita emissions of green-house gases.
(9) The number of days in a year with air pollution moderate or high.
(10) The condition of road traffic.
(11) The quality and quantity of readily available water.
(12) The population of wild birds.
(13) The percentage of new homes built on previously developed land.
(14) The per capita waste generation and management of waste.

10.4 Write briefly on the Technology for Sustainable Energy.
Ans: Energy problems of urbanised population : The details of energy demand clearly reflect that there is imbalance between demand and supply of energy. The demand of energy is more whereas supply is less. Demand is more because number of houses and vehicles are increasing day by day. Besides this, consumers of energy are abundant in number. We were 34.7 crores in 1951 but now we are more than 1OO crores in India. Every one nearly is having electrical appliance. The energy consumption is therefore shooting up.

10.5 Write a critical note on the Technology for Sustainable materials.
Ans: There is a global realization of the fact that single use of some of The important materials like metals, glass and paper would lead to scarcity of such materials since their feed-stocks would get exhausted. In developed countries, resource recovery is a high technology area. In many developing countries like India, however city garbage is sorted out manually for the recovery of metals, glass, plastics, paper, etc., which generate employment and materials for reuse.
The reasons for waste utilization are: (1) economic (2) environmental (3) resource conservation (4) employment generation and (5) provision of basic necessities of life.

Short Answer Type Questions:

10.6 What is CNG and what r its main uses?
Ans: CNG means Compressed Natural Gas, it is mainly used as a fuel. The engines of the other automobiles can be easily modified to run on CNG. In case of CNG the cost is low, wear and tear of engine is low and the environmental pollution is also low.

10.7 Write all the steps of chemical reaction for the conversion of coke or coal to methanol.
Ans: The chemical process for the conversion of coke to methanol is as follows:

C + 2H2O -------- CO2 + 2H2
C + H2O -------- CO + H2
CO + 2H2 -------- CH3OH



10.8 What is Photovoltaic Cell?
Ans: Photovoltaic energy conversion is a direct energy conversion in the sense that the light energy is directly converted into electrical energy without intermediate involvement of mechanical or thermal energy. Photovoltaic energy converters are generally known as Solar Cells.

10.9 Give examples of four non-metallic materials which can be recycled and can be reused.
Ans: 1) Paper, 2) Cow Dung, 3) Plastics, and 4) Glass.


10.10 What r uses of China Clay?
Ans: China clay is produced from Granite Rock for use in ceramic industries. About 80 –-90% of the extracted rock is spoil, which includes over burden, waste rock and coarse sand. The bulk of these materials is dumped. Coarse sand is used in road construction and in manufacture of building materials.

10.11 At the time of designing of a development project, care should be taken to preserve:
(a) Hills (b) Valleys
(c) Springs (d) All of these.

10.12 Barry commoner, in his famous book “ The closing circle”, formulated:
(a) Two laws of ecology (b) Four laws of ecology
(c) Three laws of ecology (d) No law of ecology

10.13 Sectors which r most vital for sustainable development of India are:
(a) Agriculture (b) Infrastructure
(c) Water (d) All

10.14 Match the following:
(a) Energy (D) Ozone depletion
(b) Geo-thermal Energy (C) Our common future
(c) Brundtland (A) Transport sector
(d) Montreal protocol (B) Cambay basin

10.15 Write true or false:
Nothing, in fact, is really a waste. (T)

10.16 write true or false:
Primary metal industries recover metals from municipal wastes. (T)

10.17 Name the odd one:
(a) Glass (b) Plastic
(c) Aluminium (d) Rubber

10.18 Name the odd one:
(a) Hydrogen (b) Methanol
(c) Coal (d) Iron

10.19 Fill in the blanks:
All natural features maintain ecological balance.


MOBILITY

3.1.1 Types of Mobility
The term "mobility" or "social mobility" in its widest sense refers to any movement of individuals, families or social groups among different sectors of society. The movement in the same country from one occupation to another or from one religion to another is a kind of mobility at the national level. On the international scale, migration of people from one country to another is a very important type of mobility. In anv discussion of mobility, a distinction is usually made between the so called "horizontal" and "vertical" mobility. The horizontal mobility involves no change in the position of the individual or the group in the social hierarchy(system of grades of status) - When a worker moves from one factory to another, or when an engineer takes a position in another company, there is no significant change in his social status. This is an example of horizontal mobility. The vertical mobility, on the other hand, involves a change of social level in the process of movement. If a worker becomes a wealthy businessman, his position in the class system changes quite radically. This is an example of vertical mobility, (upward). It may be noted here that vertical mobility may involve either upward or downward movement. An example of downward mobility is a member of an upper class who is dispossessed of his wealth in a revolution and is forced to enter into a manual occupation. Modern sociologists have concentrated their attention mainly on the upward mobility. This is due to the fact that they have been preoccupied with the question of equality of opportunity. In recent years, it has been suggested by many social theorists that the degree of downward mobility might be a far better indicator of the "openness" of a particular society. The reason is that downward mobility can clearly show the extent to which it is possible for the privileged(special benefit or honour) classes and groups to maintain their status and pass on to their descendants the advantages that they enjoyed. Though sociologists have been mostly preoccupied with the mobility of individuals, it is easy to see that whole families, groups, and even classes may, at certain times, change their position in the social structure. One of the earliest writers to bring out the diverse aspects of vertical social mobility was the economist Joseph Schumpeter, who in 1927 analysed and illustrated what he termed the "rise and fall" of individuals, families, and whole classes within the class structure. In studying the movement of individuals, sociologists distinguish between the following:
(1) Intra generational Mobility. (2) Inter generational Mobility.
The Mobility is said to be intra generational when an individual moves vertically upward or downward within his own adult lifetime. On the other hand, if vertical movement represented by a change in the social level occurs from the parental to the filial(of or due from a son or daughter ) generation (mostly from father to son), it is known as the intergenerational mobility. In recent years, comprehensive national studies of mobility have been conducted in many countries, but such studies have dealt almost entirely with intergenerational mobility, investigating changes in occupation between father and son. Another limitation of these studies is that they have concentrated heavily on the educational opportunity as a major factor influencing upward mobility. In contrast to the mobility of individuals, the rise and fall of families, groups or classes is relatively more difficult to study, but such movements can be documented in other ways. An important example of the upward mobility of families is the emergence of new ruling dynasties(raajvansh). Other examples can be found in the rise and fall of family business or politically influence. Such mobility of particular social groups usually occurs as a result of economic, political and cultural influences.
3.1.2 Historical Studies of Mobility:
The problem with historical studies of mobility is that they largely provide illustrations of various types of mobilities but do not show the extent of it due to lack of data. Such historical studies do not give the actual number of individuals or families who change their position by upward or downward movement in the social hierarchy over a given period of time. As a result, historical comparisons of mobility are quite difficult and largely speculative (theorize, conjecture). In fact, there are many difficulties even in examining the trends of mobility in more recent industrial societies. Nevertheless, most sociologists agree that the vertical social mobility (especially that of individuals) is greater in modern industrial societies than it was in earlier societies. On the other hand, modern social research shows that. Even in industrial societies. Mobility is limited and that there are no substantial differences between different industrial societies in the extent of mobility in spite of the general belief that social mobility is greater in the United States than in the European countries.
The movement of individuals from the working class into the upper class is generally rare in all societies. Comparisons among industrial societies show that the greater part of the vertical social mobility is a short-range mobility. Modern investigations suggest that one should be cautious in the interpretation of historical accounts of social mobility and undue prominence (clearly visible). Should not be given to exceptional cases of upward or downward movement. It is quite likely that, in all societies and at most times, there is considerable amount of stability. When this stability is not maintained by any formal or legal sanctions, it is ensured by the inheritance of property, educational advantages or political influences.
3.1.3 The Process of Mobility
The nature and degree of vertical mobility in a society are governed by a number of factors. One universal factor is the occurrence of individuals with exceptional endowments (something that is settled on any person or institution) such as intelligence, physical strength, beauty, business acumen, etc. In the past, beautiful women rose to social eminence(rising above others; conspicuous) as the mistresses of kings and nobles, and in more recent times, as film stars. Similarly, men (and to some extent, women too) have risen in the social hierarchy (body or organization classified in successively subordinate grades) by accumulation of wealth, attainment of political or military power, and intellectual or artistic achievements. Manifestations (clearly shown) of such personal qualities in exceptional amounts are quite limited and, so are the social advantages that they bring. Vertical social mobility resulting from exceptional personal qualities is governed by many social factors. In the first place, the open or closed nature of the class system in a particular society has a powerful influence on the vertical movement of individuals. An individual in a close system encounters many obstacles if he seeks to escape from his social position as a slave, serf(one bound to work on the land),or a member of a lower caste. The ideology that upholds such a system usually tends to inhibit the development of talent and ambition at the lower levels of the society. In the more open class systems of modem societies, there are no formal restrictions on upward vertical mobility. However, talented individuals from a lower social class have to overcome many difficulties, arising mainly from poverty and lack of education, in order to succeed and move to a higher social class. In contrast, less talented individuals from the upper classes are able to maintain their positions due to their inherited social advantages. The extent to which an individual talent will lead to upward mobility is also limited by the general orientation of the activities of a particular society'. A primitive tribal society that lives by hunting or is engaged in an on-going warfare with other neighbouring tribes will naturally place a high value on physical strength. Similarly, a nation engaged in imperial (pertaining to) expansion and colonisation (the act or practice of colonizing) will highly rate military qualities; and the nation that is mainly concerned with industrial and economic developments will attach the greatest importance to business skills. The general changes in social structure has a profound influence on social mobility- For example, a revolution that dispossesses (to degrade) an existing upper class or a national liberation movement that overthrows foreign rule creates new opportunities for individuals, groups and even whole classes to move upward and occupy dominant positions. The mobility is also affected by more gradual changes in a society, especially if the changes occur in its occupational structure. Thus, the expansion of technical and professional employment involves a continuing movement out of manual work, and this accounts for a major cause for the upward mobility in modem industrial societies.
Mobility is high during a revolution and after a revolution, a system of social stratification may emerge and the rate of social mobility may decline (to deviate). Similarly, during recession or depression, when the rate of growth slows down, opportunities for mobility are greatly reduced. In such circumstances, the possibility of upward mobility will largely depend upon the extent of downward mobility. Another factor having an influence on the mobility, when there is little economic development, is that of differential fertility. If the upper and middle classes limit their families, the vacant places maybe filled by individuals who rise from the lower classes. Such differential fertility has rarely been a major influence on social mobility. Upward social mobility has often been promoted by international movement of population . A very important example of this phenomenon is the colonial expansion of many European countries from the sixteenth century onwards, which provided opportunities for individuals to move upward in society by enriching themselves as traders or settlers and, at the same time as they subjugated (to bring under power) other people in Asia, Africa and America. At a later stage, with the creation of new societies by European settlers in their adopted countries (especially in North America and Australia), fresh opportunities for mobility were provided by large scale immigration.
3.1.4 Consequences of Mobility
The vertical movement of a large number of people up and down the social hierarchy tends to break down the exclusiveness of the social class and creates a more uniform national culture. Hopefully, this may also lead to reduction of class conflict, or at least class prejudices. Many sociologists have claimed that the lesser degree of mass consciousness in the US society, as compared to the societies of European countries, is due to the highest rate of social mobility in the US. It may be noted that the widespread belief that opportunities for upward mobility are greater in the US than in other societies may itself have had an important influence on the lesser degree of class-consciousness in the US. The other side of the coin of social mobility is the argument that preoccupation with vertical movement reinforces the class system. Thus, the individuals who are concerned to rise or at least to avoid falling in the social hierarchy accept and even emphasize (to lay stress on) the importance of class and status distinctions (separation or division). Another consequence of mobility is the more effective use of individual talent and ability, and this is generally considered beneficial from the point of view of the society as a whole. The reason is that if the individuals are confined to the social segment in which they are born, many useful talents will remain undiscovered and unused. In modern industrial societies, the expansion of education has been stimulated (to produce increased action in) by the desire of the governments to provide opportunities for the development of all the abilities in the population, although most of the countries are far from achieving this goal.

Vertical mobility may also have some undesirable consequences. Vertical social mobility, both upward and downward, produces strain in the individuals striving for success and adapting to new social milieus. Such mobility may also be disruptive (having an upsetting or unsettling effect) of families and local communities, (e.g., in Kerala, where thousands of talented individuals have gone to work in the Middle East countries, disrupting their family life). A high rate of vertical mobility may produce in a society the condition that the French Sociologist Durkheim called "anomie" (meaning normlessness) and the resultant disorientation and anxiety ( a state of being anxious). Under this condition, there is insufficient regulation of the individual behaviour, and the individual suffers from the "malady of infinite aspiration (lofty hopes or aims)". The presence of such stress and strain may also give rise to a higher incidence of mental illness among the highly ambitious and highly mobile individuals.
3.1.5 Channels of Mobility
Many social institutions like army, church, school, political party and occupational organisation serve as the channels of vertical mobility through which individuals ascend or descend the social ladder. In any society, at a given period of time, one of these institutions may play a dominant role, (the army in time of war). With the exception of the period of anarchy, vertical mobility is strongly controlled by the elaborate social machinery of testing, selection and placement of individuals with regard to various social positions. The family, the church and the school test the general intelligence and character of the individual according to their standards. When the individual enters an occupational institution, he is tested for the specific ability and skills necessary for the successful performance of definite functions. These institutions, therefore, serve as social sieves. They perform not only the educational and training functions, but the selective functions as well.
The process of vertical mobility exerts a number of important influences upon social life. Intensive vertical mobility increases plasticity arid versatility of behaviour and stimulates progress in thought, discovery and invention. On the other hand, too high a rate of social mobility seems to increase mental diseases when the individuals face difficulties in adaptation to the new situation. Vertical mobility makes the social structure elastic, breaks the isolation created by class and caste and stimulates rationalism. It’s direct and indirect influences on all aspects of social organisations are very potent, but highly complex.
3.1.6 Current Trends in Mobility
The economic development of the Western industrial nations after the World War II and the provision of more elaborate welfare services have generated significant changes in the class system. These changes have been interpreted in many different ways by various sociologists. According to some authors, there has been a general diminution (decrease) in class differences. This has resulted in a higher level of living, greater social mobility and a limited redistribution of wealth and income. These social changes are reflected in a decline in class conflict. This interpretation leads to the conclusion that the Western societies are moving in the direction of relative classlessness or that they are becoming predominantly middle class societies. In sharp contrast to this interpretation, other social scientists have argued that the social changes since World War II are leading to the formation of new social classes like a new upper class consisting of managers and organizers of production in both public and private sectors.

3.2 INCOME DISTRIBUTION -
3.2.1 Concept of Income
Income results from the services rendered to the society by an individual or an organisation. Service may be defined as the creation of desirable events, results or the avoidance of undesirable events/results. The value of an income is the value of the services. For all practical purposes, the value of an income is measured in terms of money. Under services, one may include the following:
(1) The benefits from a property right such as the interest yield from a bond or a fixed deposit in a bank.
(2) The benefits derived from objective instruments such as the shelter offered by a dwelling.
(3) From the co-operation of individuals with such objective instruments (the transport sender of a railway).
(4) The services rendered by individuals whether they are manual, labourers or highly qualified professionals.
The total income of an individual or personal income is the total money value of the services received by him from all sources during a given period of time, usually in one year. Similarly, a person's net money income is the sum of all his money receipts less the money invested by him. The income of society as a whole is the total money value of all the services received by the members of the society from all sources. In case of an individual, his "real income" is the money value of his expenditures on food, clothing, shelter, amusements and other miscellaneous services. One important result of these principles of income calculation is the exclusion of capital gains from the income. The capitalisation, at any point of time of the income expected in the future, is not itself an income. By the same token, an increase in the capitalisation from one point of time to another is not income except potentially. Thus, if a fixed deposit of Rs.lOOO.OO in a savings bank is earning Rs.lOO.OO a year as interest and if the depositor withdraws his interest earnings every year, the actual income from his fixed deposit is Rs.lOO.OO a year and the principal sum of Rs.l 000.00 is the capitalisation of this income. On the other hand, if he does not withdraw the interest, this amount is merely accrued and becomes capital gain rather than an income. Certain peculiarities attach to income from labour as contrasted with income from property. Thus in computing the income of a domestic help, it would be necessary to include not only his wages but also his perquisites (of one's own) like boarding and lodging since these are a part of his compensations, in addition to money wages. Moreover, accountants do not usually deprecate the income of a working man as they depredate in case of a machine, for they cannot easily appraise the value of a human being. More complications arise due to the fact that income must be defined for the purpose of taxation. Thekind of income that is taxed is largely determined by the economicorganisation of a country and the fiscal needs of its govemmen*.
3.2.2 National Income
National income may be defined provisionally as:
(1) The net total of commodities and services produced by the people comprising a nation.
(2) The total of such commodities and services received by the nation's individual members in return for their assistance in producing commodities and services.
(3) The total of goods and services consumed by these individuals out of the receipts thus earned or
(4) The net total of desirable events enjoyed by these individuals in their………………………………….
'Defined in any of the above mentioned manners, national income is the end product of a country's economic activity. As a result, national income reflects the combined play of economic forces and serves to appraise the prevailing economic organisation of a country. Figures for per capita income, especially when adjusted for differences in purchasing power of money, measure the economic welfare of a country. A continuous series of annual estimates of either the total or per capita national income suggest whether the nation tends in the course of time to grow richer or poorer arid how rapidly this change takes place.

3.2.3 Distribution
3.2.3.1 Problem of Income Distribution
It is not enough for a country to attempt to increase its national income by development programmes. The national income must be increased; but it is also necessary to ensure that it is equitably distributed among various sections of the society. Inequality of income is an important feature of capitalist economies. Even socialist and communist countries, who have established systems for the purpose of reducing inequalities of personal income, have failed to attain this equality, in pro-historic times, there was no need for a policy on income distribution since man led a nomadic (a member of a wandering pastoral community life), always in search of food. Income distribution came into force during the feudal (a right to the use of land, houses, etc in perpetuity) system and attamed great importance with the advent of the Industrial Revolution. Government policies to ensure a fair distribution of personal income are among the most controversial and difficult issues of public policy.

3.2.3.2 Causes of Inequality
The major components of personal income are labour earnings (salary or wages), property earnings (rents, interests and dividends) and government transfer payments. Disposable personal income consists of the personal income minus any taxes paid on it. Wealth (or "net worth") consists of the total value of financial and tangible (capable of being possessed) assets minus the amount of money owed to bankers or other creditors. The major causes of inequality of incomes in an economy are:
(1) Inheritance: Some persons are born with a silver spoon. Rich inheritance gives them a good start in life, Some persons are born landless; others inherit thousands of acres. Some parents die under debt leaving the burden of debt on their children while others leave huge cash and properties to their heirs. So long as the system of inheritance continues, inequalities are bound to continue.
(2) System of Private Property: Under the system of private property, a person is free to earn, free to save and free to own property. Once a person earns and acquires property, his property starts earning for him by way of rent, interest, etc.). That’s why some earn more and others earn less and differences in property lead to difference in income. Property is one of the major causes of the inequality of income.
(3) Differences in Natural Qualities: No two persons have the same natural qualities. Some are more gifted than others. Persons who are endowed by nature with superior intelligence, better physique and greater capacity for hard work can easily surpass others in the race of life. Some inherit a feeble mind in a feeble body and they are left behind.
(4) Difference in Acquired Talents: To some extent, environment makes the man since natural (or inborn) qualities are considerably modified by environment. A child may be highly intelligent, but if he or she is not lucky enough to receive proper education or training, the latent abilities remain mostly undeveloped. On the other hand, a child of even mediocre (average in quality, performance) nature abilities can do better if he or she is properly brought up and educated. Professional education, for example, improves a person's earning capacity.
(5) Lack of Opportunities: Some persons are lucky enough to get a good chance, and they may make the most of it. It is well known that underdeveloped regions (like Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Nagaland) do not offer good opportunities for employment, where as developed regions (like Punjab, Maharashtra and Gujarat) have ample opportunities.

3.2.3.3 Consequences of Inequality
Inequality of income leads to serious economic and social consequences. Some of the major consequences of uneven income distribution are as follows:
(1) Class Conflict: Inequitable distribution of income and wealth has divided the society into two classes, the "have’s" and the "have-nots", which are forever on the war path. This class conflict leads to social and political discontent
(2) Political Domination: The rich dominates the political machinery and uses it to promote his own interests. This results in corruption and social injustice.
(3) Exploitation of the Poor: The rich exploits the poor economically, socially and politically. The awareness of this exploitation may lead to political awakening, agitation and even political revolution. Inequality of income is an important cause for social and political instability.
(4) Creation of Monopolies: Unequal distribution of income promotes monopolies. The monopolies can crush small enterprises and change unfair prices.
(5) Suppression of Talent: It is not easy for a poor person to make his way in life, no matter how talented he or she may be. It is a great social loss that highly brilliant but poor people are not able to make their full contribution to the society and the nation.
(6) No Real Democracy: Democracy is a farce when there is a wide gulf between the rich and the poor. There can be no real democracy and political equality without economic equality.
(7) Moral Degradation: Unequal distribution of income leads to moral degradation of the society as the rich are corrupted by vice and the poor are demoralized by lack of economic resources. The economic inequality
corrupts the rich and degrades the poor. It becomes almost impossible for the poor to retain their honesty and integrity when they see the corrupt and rich people rising in life.

3*2.3.4 Measures to Reduce inequalities
In the present era of social and political awakening, it has become a major plank of political policy to reduce the inequality of income distribution, if not eliminate it. After the independence, India decided to set up a socialistic pattern of society. With this end in view, the Government of India strives to prevent the concentration of wealth and income in a few hands. Some of the measures to reduce inequality in the distribution of income and wealth are:
(1) Fixing Minimum Wage: The first step in the direction of a more egalitarian (believing in and upholding the principle of equality among people.) society is to guarantee each citizen a minimum wage, consistent with a minimum standard of living. The Minimum Wage Act was passed in India in 1948. In pursuance of this Act, minimum wages are fixed from time to time for agricultural labour and other workers.
(2) Social Security: An important measure for a more equitable distribution of income is the introduction of a comprehensive social security scheme assuring each citizen a minimum standard of economic welfare. Such a social security scheme must include provision for free education up to certain level, free medical and maternity aid, old-age pension, unemployment benefits, compensation for sickness and accidents, provident fund and group insurance schemes. In this way, substantial benefits can be assured even to persons whose incomes are low. Social services like public parks, libraries, museums, community halls and community TV sets may be provided on a liberal scale so that poor are able to enjoy many of the amenities available to the rich.
(3) Equality of Opportunity: The government may devise suitable means to provide equal opportunities to both the rich and the poor in getting employment or getting a start in trade or industry. For example, the government may institute a system of liberal scholarship, stipends and low interest loan so that the poor can acquire higher education and technical skills. In India, many concessions are offered to the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes and persons living in backward areas to reduce inequality in the society.
(4) Steeply-Graded Income Taxes: As possible fiscal devices may be adopted to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor. One such device is the steeply-graded (i.e., progressively higher) income taxes. This can prevent to some extent the rich getting richer. Other direct taxes like the super tax, the excess profits tax, the capital gains tax and limits on dividends may also be used for this purpose.
(5) Steep Estate Duty: In order to prevent the perpetuation (continuation or preservation for ever) of inequality from generation to generation, steeply-graded estate duty, death duty and succession taxes may be imposed. In 1964-65, and again in 1966~7, the rates of estate duty were made steeper in India, rising up to 40%.
(6) Ceiling on Property: With a view to reducing inequalities between the big and small farmers, ceilings on agricultural holdings may be imposed, as has already been done in India. The main purpose of land ceilings is to bring about a wider ownership and use of land. Similarly, a ceiling (an upper limit) on urban property may be imposed so that the inequalities in urban areas can be reduced.

3.2.4 Statistical Analysis of Income Distribution
In the first place, there has been an attempt to establish a functional relationship between the size of income and the number of recipients. Secondly, an attempt has been made to summarise the income distribution by a single measure of the inequalities of income. The most famous attempt in the first direction is the Pareto's law. The law, in its most dogmatic form, states that the distribution of income in the upper ranges of income tax payers shows a linear relationship. Mathematically, the Pareto's law may be stated as:
logN logA-c………………………………….
where / is the income size, N is the number of individuals having an income equal to or larger than X and A and a are constants (found from empirical statistics by fitting the data to the straight line given by the above equation).
It has been found that the constant (x (the slope of the straight line) is approximately equal to 1.5 in all countries at present. In addition, all ranges of income distribution follow the same linear relationship for all countries at present. It follows, therefore, that because of the unchanging and unchangeable nature of the whole range of income frequency distribution, economic welfare can be increased only through an increase in the total amount of income. It is obvious that the Pareto's law is of great importance for major questions of economic theory as well as economic policy. Many economists and statisticians have directed their attention towards testing of its validity. Results of such cumulative analysis have shown that the Pareto's law is quite inadequate as a mathematical generalisation. Because of the heterogeneity of the frequency distribution curve (due to grouping together of income from various economic categories), it is unlikely that any mathematical law describing adequately the entire distribution of income can ever be formulated. Other attempts to substitute for the linear distribution with another mathematical expression have also been found unsatisfactory for describing the distribution of income. However, a French economist, R. Gibrat, has obtained successful descriptions of a large number of frequency distributions of income by using a modification of the normal distribution curve of errors. The curve employed by Gibrat is:
Y-r""
Vii
Z=aloste-x„)+b………………………………………….
where y is the number of income recipients, X is the variable size of income, (X - x3 is a selected income constant, while a and b are constants to be found from empirical statistics. The assumption in which eq. 3.2.4.2 differs from the normal distribution curve is that the effect of each of the numerous contributory factors is not independent but proportional to the effect of other factors.

3.2.5 Measures of Inequality of Income
The more fruitful developments in the direction of summarising inequality of income by a single measure has yielded numerous measures. Such single measures of inequality of income broadly fall into four groups:
(1) The measures derived from a specific type of mathematical equation and hence, contingent upon the goodness of fit of the curve implied by that equation.
(2) The measures of the mean deviation type, available in the statistical theory of frequency distribution and applicable to diverse types of ----------------- .
(3) The measures of mean difference types.
(4) The measures constructed by using definite theoretical criteria in regard to welfare equivalents of individual income. In the first group, there are three important measures of inequality. The coefficient a of Pareto's equation has been employed as a measure of inequality. The steeper the slope (the larger the numerical value of a), the smaller the inequality of income. A second measure of inequality is Gini's index of concentration 5, which is derived from another equation of income distribution: log N=8 logS-log K where N is the number of individuals whose income is above a certain size, S is the sum of incomes (each greater than the certain size), and 5 and K are constants to be determined from empirical data. It may be noted that N is a function of the sum of incomes greater than a certain size rather than a function of that income size itself, as in the case of the Pareto's law. The relationship between Pareto's measure a and Gini's measure S can be eunr~cprl by the pniiatinn IX third measure of inequality of income may be derived from the curve employed by Gibrat. This measure is taken to be equal to 100/a. Of the dispersion measures developed in the statistical theory offrequency distribution, the average and the standard deviation naturally suggest themselves as indices of the inequality of income. The resulting relative measures of dispersion can be obtained from a frequency distribution in which the class intervals of income size are taken in absolute figures or in logarithms. The advantage of the latter procedure arises from the fact that the positive skewness characterizing frequency distributions of income is reduced by taking the income variable in terms of logarithms.The mean difference of incomes is given by the arithmetic average of differences(taken without regard to their positive or negative signs) between all possible pairs of incomes. This measure was suggested by Gini and it is known as the "ratio of concentration". Another widely known measure of inequality, which is related to Gini's ratio of concentration, is known as "Lorenz curve". In the Lorenz curve, the cumulative percentages of total income (lc) are plotted along theX-axis, while the cumulative percentages of population (PC), from the poorest to the richest, are plotted along the Y-axis. In the Lorenz curve, an equal distribution of income (total absence of inequality) is represented by a straight line passing through the origin and having a slope eaua] tn unity as shown by the straight Imp A in the fig.

Fig.3.2.5.1 Typical Lorenz curves
(Ic=cumulative percentages of income and PC =cumulative percentages of population) Empirical distributions of income, on the other hand, usually appear as concave hyperbola, as shown by the curves B and C. The existing inequality.of income is measured by the area between these straight hyperbolas and the line. The curve B shows less inequality of income, while the curve C indicates greater inequality. The variety of methods devised to measure the inequality of income illustrate the profusion(spending a lot of money) of various aspects. It also suggests a high probability of divergent results from the analysis of one and the same data. In addition, this lack of agreement as to the precise aspect of inequality to be studied is usually accompanied by paucity (insufficiency ) of adequate empirical data on income distribution. Considering these two factors, therefore, one would expect to find few definite conclusions as to the trends or differences in the inequality of income. On the contrary, one usually finds a profusion of contradictory generalisation, which are often obvious results of pressure to respond somehow to a problem vital to social policy. How divergent and unreliable such inferences are may be illustrated in the case of former Prussia, which is one of the few countries for which empirical data on personal distribution of income are available for a long period. From the income data for Prussia for the years 1875,1896,1913 and 1919, Prokopovich concluded that the inequality of income was increasing during the period 1875 - 1919. A contrary conclusion was derived from the same data by Heifferich, who claimed that no tendency towards a greater concentration of income was observable. On the other hand, Angelopoulos studied the data for the years 1896,1914 and 1926 and inferred that the inequality of income had diminished during the period 1896 -1926.

3.3 SOCIAL TENSIONS AND THEIR CAUSES
3.3 Social Tensions
Social tensions usually result from the conscious pursuit of exclusive values by individuals and/or social groups. The individual members and groups always widen or narrow their claims on society for life, liberty of movement, property and other desirable things by competing against one another. Competitors become self-conscious rivals, opponents or even enemies. The relative position of an individual in relation to the current value in a society is controlled by influences of which he is mostly unaware. On the other hand, everyone believes in some measures that his personality and life can and should be protected from the encroachment by others and that it can be enhanced at the expense of others. Thinking along these lines by individuals and groups leads to social conflict, which may involve the defence of what already has or the acquisition of what one does not have. Acquisition may mean taking away of that belongs to another or the appropriation of that which another would like to have. The defensive, destructive and obstructive aspects of a social conflict become entangled with one another in every crisis and create social tensions. Exclusive values may be pursued by individuals and groups by various means which may vary all the way from physical violence to persuasion and thus include the whole range of techniques used for social control. Conflict among human beings differs from the struggle for survival among animals in the diversity of the means employed by the former. Each animal is bound by its very structure to a few stereotyped means for coping with a conflictsituation. On the other hand, the nature of man is so plastic that rich variations can be found within the human species among the means employed to deal with conflicts. Thus, the place of physical combat is usually taken by argument, admonition(warning), ridicule(to laugh at), litigation(engaged in a lawsuit.), etc. and these are the functions of cultural setting in which conflicts occur. Social conflict is a mode of registering or consummating social change. As a result, conflict is more acute in case of rapid social changes, when the vested interests of the old social order stand out against the pressures from the new. A social crisis may bring about a willingness to come to terms with the requirements of new realities. Thus, strikes, boycotts and wars frequently lead to a more permanent organisation f interests and social tensions and subside after prolonged agitations and protracted litigations. Social crisis may also result in the obliteration of one or both of the contending parties. It is not always true, however, that a particular social conflict can produce a relatively abiding settlement. It has often been said that vital issues are never decided: they are merely superseded. There are numerous causes of social tensions.
The most important ones are:
(1) Class struggle. (2) Political corruption.
(3) Crime. (4) Competition. (5) Unemployment. (6) Heterogeneous (different in kind) population. (7) Racialism. (8) Religious intolerance(inability to tolerate).
(9) Linguistic (relating to languages or knowledge or the study of language) intolerance.
(10) (10) Uneven distribution of wealth.
(11) Rapid social change. (12) War.
Among the above twelve causes of social tensions, the first five are very visible.
3.3.2 Class Struggle
Class struggle is a form of social conflict, which creates tension in the society. Credit for the theory of class struggle goes to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They formulated the doctrine of class struggle in the Communist Manifesto in 1847. Marx's theory of class struggle asserts that, in the course of making a living and utilising technical knowledge and industrial equipment, the members of society become segregated into classes which carry on different functions in industry and, as a result, occupy different positions in the social organisation. Among these classes, there arises an Antagonism (opposition ) of interests, which may lead to a struggle. The modem capitalistic regime (system of government) does not abolish the class struggle; it merely creates new classes and intensifies the struggle among the classes. With the development of capitalism, society splits up more and more into two hostile camps – the bourgeoisie (the middle class of citizens) and the proletariat (the poorest labouring class). The bourgeoisie attempts to convert surplus value into profits, while the proletariat tries to resist it. In the ensuing struggle, the workers realize that the power of the bourgeoisie rests on the ownership of the means of production and that economic exploitation (the act of using for selfish purposes)can be ended only through establishment of a ocialist society based on collective ownership. On the basis of his theory of class struggle, Marx predicted the inevitable victory of the proletariat with assumption of certain inherent tendencies in capitalism, viz., the rapid concentration of industry, the disappearance of the middle class and the growth and increasing misery of the working class. In any society, the process of production is simultaneously a process of economic exploitation (the act of successfully applying industry to any object). Those who do physical work receive less than they produce, not only because a portion of it is necessary for the extension of production, but also because they have to support the owners of the means of production. The resulting antagonism (opposition) finds its expression in a struggle for distribution of the total national product. As this struggle becomes conscious, it gives rise to class conflict and creates social tension. The dominant minority tries to maintain and extend the opportunities for exploitation, while the exploited majority continually strives to liberate itself. Gradually, class interests intermingle (mix together) with political, religious and even scientific and technological interests. Since the power of the ruling class is always concentrated in the organisation of the state, the oppressed class aims directly against the state. Every class truggle is a political struggle, which aims at the abolition (to put an end to) of the existing social order and establishment of a new social system. In order to prove capable of establishing a new social organisation, the class must possess certain essential characteristics:
(1) It must be economically exploited and politically oppressed.
(2) It must be a producing class.
(3) It must be welded together by the conditions of its existence.
(4) It must form a large mass or a majority of the population.
According to the theory of class struggle, all these characteristics are found in the industrial working population. It is for this reason that the industrial proletariat represents the only class, which can carry out a complete social revolution and can reorganise society on the basis of the socialist ideal. The peasantry (a lowly class of smallholders) lacks most of the above traits. On the other hand, the peasantry forms a large portion of the population in most countries. So, it is essential that the industrial workers should ally (a choice taw or large marble) themselves with the poorer elements of the peasantry to carry out the social reorganisation. The classical theory of class struggle, as outlined above, has encountered many difficulties. No definitive division of society can be made into classes on the basis of the so-called factors of production, the law of the division of labour or the sources of income. In modern society, the struggle by economic and social groups is fragmentary and intermittent. It is generally concentrated around major issues of immediate importance. It is also inevitable that economic interests should be overshadowed from time to time bv cultural, religious or racial factors. Nationalism, both as economic and cultural phenomena, tends to offset the formation of classes. Economically, machination is likely to regard itself as one unit common interests as against other nations. Culturally, each nation tries to consolidate its economic coherence by means of national ideals which permeate(to penetrate and fill the pores of) all social groups. To the extent to which it anifests(that may be easily seen by the eye or perceived by the mind) itself, the struggle of economic groups i&a potent factor of social change. Manifestations of group conflicts like strikes reveal stagnant conditions and serve as a stimulus to their elimination or amelioration (to improve). On the other hand, when such conflicts in the industrial world are concerned merely with group shares in the distribution of wealth, they may result in social detriment (damage). In large social transformations, the struggle of classes may lead to social disintegration (to break up). This is true specially when the class struggle is carried out among social groups which are in early stages of economic and intellectual development. Such class struggles have often resulted in social crises.