AMIE INDIA Students Forum

[navin_rdy]

Development Processes
Long type Answers:
4.1 Explain in brief some of the major aspects of development.
Ans: Development is a total transformation of society and a movement in consciously chosen direction. There is no straight and linear progress from traditional to modern society, and neither is this transition smooth.
Development is a complex one and involves several aspects:
(1) Political development.
(2) Social development.
(3) Economic development
(4.) Intellectual development.
(1) Political development.: The first requirement of political development is a high degree of role of specialization (and differentiation) of political institutions and the growth of communication media. Political parties, trade unions, religious organizations, pressure groups and other similar organizations represent functional differentiation. In the second place, there is greater emphasis on rational, scientific and secular techniques for decision making. The developed system acquires an impersonal character in which the law becomes more important than the whims of men in power.
(2) Social development. When a traditional society is developed, there is a marked shifting of population from rural areas to urban centers under the impact of industrialization, which is one of the main agents of development In addition to migration to cities and towns, the growth of technology gradually reduces the percentage of the population engaged in agriculture. Social development brings about a marked change in the outlook and behavior of social groups which are characterized by the functions they perform rather than by their caste, language and other such factors, With the growth of social development, the individual finds himself in a wider world of freedom in which there are fewer restrictions on his ability to take decision affecting his life. He is free to choose his own career rather than have it determined on the basis of his caster
(3) Economic Development
Economic development also known as "economic growth" covers many aspects of social life. In the first place, it involves the systematic application of science and technology to the processes of production and distribution of goods and services. Secondly, it compels increasing use of inanimate sources of energy in contrast to the use of human or animal energy in traditional societies. This change in the pattern of energy consumption can only be sustained by a evolution in the consumption patterns of the masses demanding diversification of production in response to varied consumer needs. Diversified consumer needs lead to a high degree of specialization in production techniques and labor skills. Rationality in economic decisions (in determining the location of industry, for example) results in increased mobility of labor and emergence of a vast variety of market processor.
(4.) Intellectual development. : Development cannot be sustained for long in any society without a corresponding and self-sustaining intellectual development characterized by constantly increasing knowledge. This involves the existence of adequate number of fact-finding and data-processing agencies, statistical units, Research and development laboratories, universities and similar institutions. Intellectual development implies the existence of intellectual elites who play a key role in sustaining the growth of technology. Intellectual development leads, in all political systems, to greater emphasis on secularism and on secularization of the process of government and bureaucracy'. It also leads to an increasing emphasis on strengthening the material basis of life.
4.2 List the impediments to development. Explain these in brief.
Ans: There are several impediments to development of a traditional society. Some of the obstacles are:
(1) Lack of skills.
(2) Rigid administrative system.
(3) Impatience for rapid development.
(4) Passion for quantitative expansion.
(5) Premature politicization.
(6) Strain on law and order resources.
(7) Rapid growth of population.

(1) Lack of skills: The developing countries are usually weak in the skills required for development. The real problem in training personnel for development programs lies not in unparting information to them, but in helping them to develop the required skills. It is necessary, to give field workers and administrators more freedom to experiment and to try new approaches; but this is precisely where the Indian programs suffer.
(2)Rigid Administrative System: In India arid in many other Commonwealth countries, the administrative system inherited from the British rule leaves little room for freedom to experiment. The inherited bureaucracy with its outmoded procedures of work and personal attitudes, inadequate delegation at all levels, too formal supervision of field workers and poor morale provide a major impediment. f3J Impatience for Rapid Development It arises from the belief that a country must embark on all areas of development at one time. This has led, among other things, to symbolic expenditure on big projects to convince the masses and the outside world of the country's determination to become a modern nation in the shortest possible period of time. Many poor countries have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the basic amenities of life remain unprovided for a high percentage of their population.
(3) Impatience for rapid development. It arises from the belief that a country must embark on all areas of development at one time. This has led, among other things, to symbolic expenditure on big projects to convince the masses and the outside world of the country's determination to become a modern nation in the shortest possible period of time. Many poor countries have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the basic amenities of life remain unprovided for a high percentage of their population.

(4) Passion for Quantitative Expansion Another obstacle arises from the passion for a rapid quantitative expansion without attention to quality. Apart from community development, education has very rapidly expanded in India since independence and new universities and colleges have mushroomed under local pressure. The result of this expansion has been pumping into the society a vast army of unemployed graduates.
(5) Premature Politicization : The political leadership in developing countries has a marked tendency to politicize the mass prematurely. The large number of students and unemployed youths, often recruited by various political parties, contribute to the restlessness of the political process.
(6) Strain on Low and Order Resources : Politicization of the mass results in considerable strain on the law and order resources of the state. The leadership in India has done very little since independence for rehabilitating the police in the popular mind as protectors of the law. Attitude formed in the popular mind towards police in the era of our freedom struggle has not yet died but has produced a certain ambivalence towards the police. As a result, investment in improvement and strengthening of the police department has appeared to our leadership as being in some way contrary to the spirit of democratic welfare.
(7) Rapid Growth of Population: Rapidly growing population is one of the major impediments to the development of a traditional society. Rapid population growth usually results from the improvement in the general conditions of the mass, better health-care facility and decline in morality. A high rate of population
growth offsets the economic growth of a country. This leads to frustration, social tension and mass violence.

4.3 Define and explain a under-developed economy. What are the basics
Characteristics of under-developed countries?
Ans: According to the "United Nations Experts Committee," an under- Pr -7 developed country is one whose per capita real income is low when compared with the per capita real income of the US, Canada, Australia and Western Europe. According to Prof. Ragnar Nurkse, "the under-developed countries are those which, compared with the advanced countries, are under-equipped with capital in relation to their population and natural resources". Even this defination is not fully satisfactory. The Indian Planning Commission has defined an under-developed country as one "which is characterized by the coexistence, in greater or lesser degree, of unutilized or under-utilized manpower on the one hand and of unexploded natural resources on the other". According to Colin Clark, who was one of the pioneers in the studies of under-developed economies, "economic development consists in the progressive enlargement of tertiary occupations in the economy". According to this definition, under-developed economies are those in which the primary occupations predominate. In current literature, all countries with low per capita income are generally classified as under-developed. In general, all countries with per capita income less than 10% of that of the US (31,910 US dollars) may be regarded as under developed countries. India, with a per capita income of 2,230 US dollars, is one of the most under-developed countries in the world.
Some of the basic common characteristics are mention below:
(1) Low per capita income (2) Deficiency of capita (3) Excessive dependence on Agriculture(4) Rapid Growth of Population (5) Large –scale Unemployment (6) Under-Utilization of Resources (7) Foreign Trade Orientation (8) Low Levels of Skill.

4.5 "International trade plays an important role in economic development''-Justify the statement.
Ans: International trade plays a very important role in economic development since it allows a country to escape from its own limitations of natural and human resources and concentrates its efforts in the areas in which it has a genuine advantage. If there were no international trades, a developing country would have to grow on all fronts simultaneously. In that case, its growth could be seriously impaired by the limitations of natural resources and acquired human skills in many areas. A country bent on growing through an industrialization policy may benefit if it can concentrate at first on light manufacturing and exporting consumer goods in return for capital goods made by heavy industries in more developed countries. In this way, a developing country can gain many of the benefits of more efficient production that it could not hope to match for a long time to come.
Among the other advantages of specialization that international trade makes possible are the opportunities to take advantage of the economy of scale by producing far more goods than would be required to meet the domestic demand in a state of self-sufficiency. A further advantage that may be significant for a developing country is often called the advantage of "learning by doing". On the other hand, economic growth with a heavy dependence on the foreign trade often brings in the serious problem of the balance of payments in a world of fixed exchange rates. In a developing country, capital goods are often one of the main limitations to growth. In a closed economy, the problem of scarce capital appears as a resource problem since there are not enough resources to produce capital goods at a rate as fast as desired. In an open economy the same problem appears as a foreign exchange problem since there is not enough foreign exchange to buy all the imported capital goods that are desired for faster economic growth. In both cases, the problem is the same, i.e., it is very difficult to obtain a desired level of capital goods. One way is to make the capital goods at home; the other way is to make consumer goods at home and then sell them abroad in exchange for capital goods. A second problem in a developing country is related to the import of consumer goods, if the country's economy is an open one.

4.6 Write a brief note on interrelationship between social, economic and scientific factors.
Ans : Economic development is hardly possible without social change, and science, engineering and technology are the most important factors for changing a traditional society into a modern and developed one. Engineering is the ( I applied science and technology is the applied engineering. This clearly shows that social, economic and scientific factors for development are highly interrelated. Technology, arising from scientific research followed by technological development, has been a prime mover m creating the kind of world in which we live today. From the shaping of the first stone tools, the discovery of the wheel, the lever and the plough and learning the use of fire, man has assiduously shaped science to serve his material needs. Science, therefore, is not a new phenomenon! What is different today is that the discover of natural laws through scientific research has given a new dimension to technology. As a result, technology now has such a massive impart on our lives that it offers on the one hand an almost infinite promise to relieve poverty and provide healthy conditions of life, but on the other hand it also threatens our pattern of life, the global ecology and even the Survival of the human race.




4.7 Explain the role of science and technology in development.
Ans: In order to appreciate properly the rationale and relevance of adopting science and technology for development, it is necessary to draw a distinction between the two terms "science" and "technology". As explained earlier, science and technology are closely related and highly interdependent. Policy for them, however, has to be distinct. Science is the result of man's restless quest to comprehend the phenomena of nature. By its very nature, development of science requires a long-term planning. No schedule of time can be fixed in advance for achieving a scientific breakthrough. Technology, on the other hand, is product or process specific and not universal. Unlike science, technologies are not widely publicized and generally, not open to outsiders. The inventor guards the secrets of his technological breakthrough by getting a patent on it and thus preventing others from using the process developed by him. The possession of the patent on a technological development gives monopoly rights to the patent holder to derive commercial benefits from it for a fixed period. Technology is an essential input in all decisions relating to production in all sectors of the economy. As a result, technology is amenable to time-bound programs, policies, strategies and planning on a continuing basis. All plans contain some specific projects with some technological contents in them. Projects launched for national development have to be supported by appropriate technological inputs that would improve productivity of both men and materials. In the process of modernization, a country has to assimilate its own indigenous technology as well as the relevant imported technology. India has been doing so ever since it launched its ambitious five-year Plans. The role which relevant technology can play in improving productivity can be clearly seen from the experience of Punjab. Subsistence agriculture in Punjab was transformed into a commercial one, particularly after the Green Revolution in the 1960s, through the application of technology.

4.8 Write a note on the obstacles to Transfer of Technology.
Ans : If the experience of the industrialized countries has been that science and technology have been ma)or instruments for their economic development, one would assume that the same should be true for developing countries too. Certainly, great advances have been made in developing countries by the direct transfer of technology from advanced countries. For example, communications now form a worldwide network; certain devastating diseases like malaria, smallpox and tuberculosis have been controlled; and agriculture in the third world countries has made rapid progress by the use of fertilizers and high-yielding varieties of seeds.
The relative failure of the process of technology transfer is due to many causes, in addition to the lack of indigenous scientific and technological capacity. The profit motive of the donors of technology does not always harmonize with the basic needs of the receivers. Other causes of the failure of technology transfer lie in the social and political factors in the recipient nations. Another difficulty is the scarcity of capital. Also, some technologies are energy-intensive. In most Third World countries, unemployment and underemployment are widespread and, therefore, capital-intensive technologies are not suitable to them. Another obstacle to successful transfer of technology is the insufficient local availability of the necessary technical and managerial skills.
At present, the main political debate with regard to the use of science and technology for development is concentrated on the transfer process itself, and on the improvement in the access of advanced technology to the developing countries. The arguments used in the debate are highly politicized and centre around the effectiveness and motivation of the multinational corporations (MNCs) as the main agents of technology transfer. The MNCs are needed by the developing countries, but they are not encouraged. It is necessary that the multinationals and the developing countries come to terms. The multinational corporations will have to be encouraged to establish lasting relationship with the host country. The multinationals, as a matter of self-interest, will have to learn to balance the need for next year's profits with their long-term survival in the host country.

4.9 Explain the role of science and technology in rural development.
Ans: Application of science and technology for rural development has acquired a special significance in India's development programs. Rural people occupy the pivotal position in the context of anti-poverty programs. It has been well recognized that the physical resources alone are not the only constraint for development. Even if physical resources are available, their inefficient-utilization can result in under-development. Thus, science and technology assume a greater significance in the context of rural development since they can increase the efficiency of resource utilization. The areas of economy, which can be substantially influenced through the adoption of science and technology, can be grouped under production and development. Production efficiency in respect of the rural people relates to the following two aspects:
(1) Increasing efficiency of resource use for productive enterprise taken
up by the rural people, either individually or uncooperative groups.
(2) Increasing efficiency of labor that the rural people provide to the
economy through skill development.
Developments in science and technology can be fruitfully utilized for rural development through an improvement in the production efficiency of investment resources as well as that of the rural labor force, conservation of resources used by them and improvement in their health and living conditions. A great deal of effort has gone into the application of science and technology for rural development, but it has not yet produced desired results. While some technologies appropriate for rural development have been developed, their combined package (innovation, adoption, utilization, human resources, raw materials and marketing) has not made substantial change in the productivity, income and living condition of the rural people in general.
The objectives should be:
(1) Development of technologies appropriate to rural areas in the existing
Socioeconomic context of both producers and their customers.
(2) A "delivery system" or methodology to ensure the self-sustaining
adoption and utilization of these technologies.
(3) Maximization of their benefits to the rural poor.

4.10 Define planning. What are its characteristics?
Ans: Defination of planning given by Prof. Dickinson. According to him, "Economic planning is the making of major economic decisions - what and how much is to be produced; how, when and where it is to be produced and to whom it is to be allocated - by the conscious decision of a comprehensive survey of the system as a whole". Prof. Loucks defines planning as "the shaping of all economic activities into group-defined spheres of action, which are rationally mapped out and fitted, as parts of a mosaic, into a coordinated whole, for the purpose of achieving certain nationally conceived and socially comprehensive goals. There are three important characteristics of planning. In the first place, there is a definite planning authority, whether it be the government or another body specially constituted like the Planning Commission in India. This planning authority is entrusted with the task of surveying the resource of the country, fixing up targets and laying down the methods for reaching these targets. If the government itself is the planning body, it also executes the plan thus formulated. It is not necessary that the planning authority should have supreme or dictatorial powers. It may be dictatorial, or it may work subject to the democratic control of a parliament as in India. It may even delegate some of its powers to other agencies, but the plans of all such agencies taken together must fit into the common pattern laid down by the planning authority. The second characteristic of planning is that the decisions are based on a survey of the economy as a whole. The planning authority acquires comprehensive knowledge of all resources that the economy possesses. Moreover, it keeps in view the needs and requirements of the economy as a whole, and not merely of some particular sectors of it, when it allocates the resources for various uses. In third place, the planning authority deliberately takes decisions with regard to the use to which various resources in the economy are put in. The economic life of the country concerned is not left to mere chance, or to the working of free competition. Planning implies the conscious and deliberate choice of economic priorities by the planning authority. An unplanned economy is characterized by the absence of these three characteristics. In an unplanned society, each individual is free, within such legal limits as may be laid down by the state, to make use of the resources at his command in the manner he thinks best. Naturally, he does not take a comprehensive view of the economy as a whole. He has, at his command, only a part of the total resources of the community. He uses these resources in such a way as to make the largest profit for himself, without any thought of the effects of his actions on others or on the economy of the country as a whole

4•12 Explain the objectives of planning.
Ans : The objectives of planning, however, are not the same for all countries, nor are they the same for any country at all times. What precisely arc the objectives of planning depend on the stage of economic development of the country concerned, the socio-economic conditions prevalent there at the time of planning, and the requirements for a particular situation. Keeping the broad objective of accelerating economic growth and of raising the standard of living of the people, the major objectives may be listed as follows:
(1) Achieving full employment.
(2) Maximizing national income and raising living standards.
(3) Rapid industrialization.
(4) Achieving self-sufficiency m food and raw materials.
(5) Reducing inequalities.
(6) Redressing unbalances in the economy.
It may be noted, however, that these objectives are interrelated and complementary, and not mutually exclusive of one another.
(1) Achieving Full Employment: One of the major objectives of planning especially in economically advanced countries is to provide full employment to its citizens. Unemployment is one of the by-products of capitalism, and is considered by many to be the biggest curse of a modern capitalist society. In order to end unemployment, the development plans are directed to those directions and those sectors of the economy where there is more unemployment. Towards this end, the state can redistribute the labor force and productive resources, and thus create more jobs in those sectors. Planning in a developing country like India may not be able to create the conditions for full employment in the near future, but it can reduce the incidence of unemployment.
(2) Maximizing National Income: Another laudable objective of economic planning is to maximize the national income and to raise the living standard of the people. The planners pursue this objective relentlessly. The reason is that only planned efforts can raise the national income appreciably. The unplanned development efforts do not bring any substantial progress in this direction since the productive efforts are frittered away in an uncoordinated economic activity.
(3) Rapid Industrialization: This objective assumes more importance in the case of those countries which have been left behind in the race for industrialization, it has been realized that industrialization plays a very important role in raising the national income and in solving the problem of unemployment, it is difficult for a country to achieve prosperity by merely confining itself to agriculture. The economies, which are predominantly agricultural, are bound to remain backward unless attention is paid to industrialization.
(4) Achieving self-sufficiency: As a first step towards more systematic and intensive planning, it is important to make the country self-sufficient in the matter of food and essential raw materials. This self-sufficiency provides a solid base for the country and prepares it for further development through industrialization. If a country is not self-sufficient in the matter of food and raw materials, mere political freedom may prove to be a myth.
(5) Reducing Inequalities: It is generally realized that political equality is meaningless unless it is accompanied by economic equality. Glaring inequalities of wealth, income and opportunities are against the spirit of democracy. Bridging the gulf between the rich and the poor is one of the most important objectives of planning.
(6) Redressing Imbalances in the Economy: Often it is found that the
economic development in a country is lopsided. An economy, for example, may be predominantly agricultural, or it may depend too much on the export of oil or minerals. In our own country, nearly 75% of the people are dependent on agriculture and related activities. This is an example of an unbalanced economy. To lend stability to the economy, it becomes essential to reduce this imbalance. If there are such imbalances in the economy of a country, removing them becomes an important objective of planning. In addition, there is usually a regional imbalance in respect of industrialization in many of the developing countries. When this is the case, the plans are aimed to correct such regional imbalances too.

(Objective/Short Type)

4.14 Define Science, Engineering and Technology.
Ans: Science, engineering and technology are the most important factors for changing a traditional society into a modern and developed one. Engineering is the, I applied science and technology is the applied engineering. This clearly shows that social, economic and scientific factors for development are highly interrelated. Technology, arising from scientific research followed by technological development, has been a prime mover m creating the kind of world in which we live today. From the shaping of the first stone tools, the discovery of the wheel, the lever and the plough and learning the use of fire, man has assiduously shaped science to serve his material needs. Science, therefore, is not a new phenomenon! What is different today is that the discover of natural laws through scientific research has given a new dimension to technology. As a result, technology now has such a massive impart on our lives that it offers on the one hand an almost infinite promise to relieve poverty and provide healthy conditions of life, but on the other hand it also threatens our pattern of life, the global ecology and even the survival of the human race.


4.15 Define the "rate of population growth".
Ans : The rate of population growth is given by the difference between the birth rate and death rate of a country.

4.16 What is the most effective method of population control?
Ans : The most effective method of population control is the spread of education.
To a very large extent, the qualitative aspect of a country’s population is determined bye the level of literacy. The higher the rate of literacy, the higher is the contribution of population to economic and social development.




4.17 What is the range of capital-output ratio for the developing countries?
Ans : The ratio determines the rate at which the output of a country grows as a result of a given volume of the capital investment. A lower capital-output ratio leads to a comparatively higher rate of the growth of output as a result of a given volume of capital investment.

4.18 What is the meaning of "planning by direction" ?
Ans : The government may also influence the supply and / or demand of various commodities, and thus increase or decrease their production , consumption and price. The first of these methods (issue of orders, imposition of controls, etc.) is known as “planning by direction” while the second method (use of fiscal and monetary policy) is called “Planning by inducement”.

4.19 Define "Plan Holiday".
Ans: Since the Third five-year Plan had gone away, the process of planning itself became discredited in the eyes of many people. As a result, there were demands from many different quarters to declare a Plan Holiday.

4.20 What is a Rolling Plan?
Ans: The new pattern of planning was laid down as the Rolling Plan , which implied that the performance of the Plan was to be assessed every year, and a new Plan based on this assessment would be prepare for the next year.

4.21 During which five-year Plan period, maximum emphasis was laid
On steel industries?
Ans: Second plan (1956-61) laid special emphasis on heavy industries like steel

4.22 What is Green Revolution?
Ans :

4.23 When was the slogan "Garibi Hatao" given ?
Ans: The Fifth Plan attempted to coordinate various sectors of the economy in terms of he new slogan Garibi Hatao (“ Remove the poverty”)

4.24 Pre-machine technology includes:

(a) Basket weaving (b) Pottery making
(c) Only (a) (c) Both.

4.25 Functional differentiation is represented by:

(a) Trade unions (b) Political parties
(c) Both (d) Neither.

4.26 Match the following:
(A) Bharat Ratna Sir (B)Mixed economy
M.Visvesvaraya
(B) India (C) High Mass consumption
(C) Germany (D) Under-developed economy
(D) Colin Clark (A) Planned Economy for India

4.27 Write true or false: -
The caste system allows vertical social mobility.-False
The caste system did not allows vertical social mobility.

4.28 Write true or false
Advertising is an important aspect of economic development. —True

4.29 Name the odd ones;
(a) Economic instability
(b) Multinational corporations
(c) Uneven distribution of wealth
(d) Economic backwardness.

4.30 Fill up the blanks:
Some of the impediments to development are:
Lack of skill, Rigid administrative system., Impatience for rapid development.;
And premature politicization.


CHAPTER-6 ENVORONMENT

6.1 Give most suitable definitions of "environment" and "environmental pollution". What is a pollutant as defined by the Government of India in its Environmental Protection Act (1986)?
Ans :
Earth is the only planet where other living beings have evolved because of the availability of all the ingredients such as air, water, food, energy, etc., which are essential for life. These together constitute the environment. The environment can be defined as one's surroundings

Environmental pollution may be broadly defined as "adding to the environment a potentially hazardous substance or source of energy faster than the rate at which the environment can accommodate it". Alternately, environmental pollution may also be defined as:

"An undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, water and land that may be or will be
harmful to human life and other living organisms, living
conditions, industrial progress and cultural assets and will
deteriorate raw material resources".

In brief, one may define the environmental pollution as "an unfavourable alteration of environment largely as a result of human activities".

A pollutant is a substance that affects adversely or alters the environment by changing the growth rate of species, interferes with the food chain, health, comfort and amenities of the people and is toxic. In the Environment Protection Act (1986), passed by the Government of India, an environmental pollutant is defined as :

"Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such con-
centration as may be or tends to be injurious to the environment
and the environmental pollution means the presence in the
environment of any environmental pollutant".

6.2 Write brief notes on atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Ans :
The global environment consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere in which the life-sustaining resources of the earth are contained. The atmosphere, which is a mixture of various gases (mainly nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour) extending outward from the surface of the earth, evolved from the elements of the earth that were gasified during its formation. The hydrosphere consists of oceans, lakes and streams and shallow ground water bodies. The lithosphere, on the other hand, is the soil mantle that wraps the core of the earth. (The biosphere, a thin layer that encapsulates (enclose in) the earth, is made up of atmosphere and lithosphere adjacent to the surface of the earth, together with hydrosphere It is within the biosphere that all the life-forms of earth live. Life-sustaining materials in solid, liquid and gaseous forms are cycled through biosphere, giving sustenance to all the living organisms. Life-sustaining resources, air, water and food, are withdrawn from the biosphere.
6.3 State air pollution as defined by the W.H.O. List the major causes of air pollution.
Ans :
The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined air pollution as "the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which are harmful to man and his environment". In addition to industries, there are various other sources of air pollution in India, e.g., domestic combustion of low-grade fuels, fine dusts contributed by the deserts and other open and dry fields and human activities causing heavy pollution of the urban air (with suspended particulate matters and exhaust from motor vehicles). The main pollutants of air are carbon monoxide sulphur dioxide,oxides of nitrogen,carbon dioxide and particulates. Air pollution affects growth,living and life of humans, plants, organisms and all other living beings.

6.4 What are the major sources of water pollution ? Explain in brief.
Ans :
Water pollution may be defined as "the addition of substances (organic, inorganic, biological or radiological) or factors (e.g., heat) which degrade the quality of water so that either it becomes a health hazard or unfit for use”

The major sources of water pollution are:

(1) Domestic.
(2) Industrial wastes.
(3) agricultural chemical
(4) Excess heat (from nuclear power plants, for example) -
(5) Oil spills (from tankers or coastal oil wells).

6.5 Explain in brief the environmental ethic.
Ans :
The word "ethic" is derived from the Greek work "ethos", which means the character of a person as defined by his actions. This character has been developed during the evolutionary process and has been influenced by the need for adopting to the environment. The "ethic", in short governs our way of doing things and this is a direct result of our environment. Ecology and economics are on a collision course now. The conflict between the ecologists and economists has been aptly summarized by Kenneth Boulding:

"Ecology is uneconomic.
But with another kind of logic, Economy is unecologic".

In the ecological context, maladaptation to the environment by an organism results in two options:

(1) The organism dies out or
(2) The organism evolves to a form and character where it is once again compatible with the environment.
The acceptable option is one in which we must learn to share, in an equitable manner, our vast but finite natural resources to regain a balance. This requires that our needs be reduced and that the materials that we do use must be replenishable. The recognition of the need for such adaptation as a means of survival has developed into what we now call the "environmental ethic". The birth of environmental ethic as a force is partly a result of our concern for our own long-term survival, as well as our realization that humans are but one form of life and that we should share our earth with our fellow travelers. Environmental ethic is not a religion since it is based not only on faith, but also on hard facts and through analysis. The environmental ethic is very new and none of the doctrine is cast in immutable decrees and dogmas. Education of the public to environmental problems and solutions is of prime importance.

6.5 Explain the role of an Environmental Engineer.
Ans : As pollutants enter air, water or soil, natural processes such as dilution, bio-degradation and chemical reactions convert waste materials to more acceptable forms and disperse them through a larger volume. However, these natural processes can no longer perform the clean-up alone due to the enormous amount of wastes generated now. The waste treatment facilities designed by the environmental engineer are mostly based on the principles of self-cleansing observed in nature, but the engineered processes amplify and optimize the operations observed in nature to handle larger volumes of pollutants and to treat them more rapidly. Environmental engineers adapt the principles of natural mechanisms to engineered systems for pollution control when : (1) they construct tall stacks to disperse and dilute air pollutants, (2) design biological treatment facilities for the removal of organic materials from waste water, (3) use chemicals to oxidize and precipitate iron and manganese in drinking water supplies, or (4) bury solid wastes in sanitary land-fill operations. Occasionally, the environmental engineer must also design to counteract or even reverse natural processes


(Objective/Short Type)

6.6 List major four natural needs of mankind.
Ans :
Human beings used natural resources are air, water, food and shelter.

6.7 List major four acquired needs of mankind.
Ans :
acquired needs : automobiles, appliances, processed food and beverage


6.8 A pollutant may be:

(a) Biodegradable (b) Toxic
(c) Only (b) (d) Both.
6.10 Match the following:

(A) Agricultural wastes - D (a) Air pollution
(B) Catalytic converter - A (b) Motor vehicles
(C) Incinerators - B (c) Nonbiodegradable
(D) Pesticides - C (d) Soil pollution

6.9 Write true or false:
6.10
Domestic sewage has mainly biodegradable pollutants. –FALSE

Ans : Domestic sewage has mainly non -biodegradable pollutants.

6.11 Name the odd ones:

(a) Poverty (b) Economic growth
(c) Population (d) Pollution.

6.12 Fill up the blanks :

The global environment consists of atmosphere hydrosphere and lithosphere.



MODEL QUESTIONS
(Essay/Long type)

7.1 What are the six classes of the components of the ecosystem? Describe in brief.
Ans :
a) components of Eco-system

There are two components (parts) of an Eco-system.

1. Biotic : .They are living organisms. They are distinguished on the basis of their nutritional relationships.
The organisms living, on the land masses are different from those in sea-water. Climate condition bring about variations in the types of plants and animals found in different land masses.
2. Abiotic : They are non-biological of Eco-System. They influence the living organism in the area.
They are also called non-living components of the Eco-system. Examples are chemical substances found in the soil, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and minerals like phosphates, nitrates or organic materials like carbohydrates, fats, proteins and vitamins. Other abiotic elements of the climate are temperature, rain fall, duration of sunlight, winds ,nature of soil, slope of the land, composition of the bodies, etc.
The six classes of an Eco-system are as follows :

1) Primary consumers. Herbivores feeding on plants. Example : Rabbit etc.
2) Secondary consumers : carnivores feeding on animals. Examples : Lion
3) Tertiary consumers : Omnivores feeding both plants and animals. Example ; man
4) Consumers of decomposed tissues of plants. . Decomposers, Example: bacteria and fungi.
5) Nutrients in soil and water.
6) Energy from sun and from photosynthesis.

7.2 Describe the ecosystem with reference to a pond as an example.
Ans : A pond is a good example of a small, fresh - water, aquatic ecosystem, which is self-sufficient and self-regulating. In fact, one of the best ways to start the study of ecology is to study a small pond, where all the basic components of an ecosystem can be conveniently examined.
Abiotic Components : The Abiotic components of a pond ecosystem consist of the physical and chemical parameters of pond water such as color, odour, taste, turbidity, electrical conductivity, temperature, pH (hydrogen ion concentration), suspended solids, dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrate, sulphate, phosphate, chloride, etc., and certain minerals like sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt, lead, mercury and arsenic. Water samples can be collected from the pond and ail the above-mentioned physico-chemical parameters can be determined in a well-equipped laboratory.
Biotic Components : In a pond, the auto-trophic (self-nourishing) green plants and some species of photosynthetic bacteria are the producers. The green plants are mainly the macrophytes and phytoplanktons present in the pond water. The macrophytes are the rooted larger plants, which may be partly or completely submerged, emergent or free-floating. The phytoplanktons, on the other hand, are extremely small, floating or suspended lower plants. Diatoms form a major part of phytoplakton ok. Other types of phytoPlanktons are the green algae such as oscillatoria, volvox, spirogyra, etc.
In a pond, the majority of consumers are the herbivores. There are also a few insects and fishes which are carnivores. They depend on herbivores for their food. The primary consumers are either benthos or zooplarlktons (microscopic anirnals). Benthos are the organisms present at the bottom of the pond, but some are associated with the living plants. The common examples of benthos are fishes, beetles or insect larvae. Zooplanktons are mainly rotifers, protozoans and crustaceans. They feed on phytoplanktons. Some fishes, insects and frogs come under the category of secondary consumers. They feed on zooplanktons or on small fishes. The large fishes that eat small fishes and water snakes that feed on fishes come under the category of tertiary consumers.
In a pond, there are some microorganisms that decompose the dead and decaying bodies of both consumers and producers. They are known as decomposers. Some bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes belong to this category of the biotic components of a pond. Their main function is to bring about the decomposition of dead and decaying organisms of the pond ecosystern. Thus, within the small area of a pond, all the important feature of an ecosystern can be observed.

7.3 Write a critical note on the principles of ecobalance.
Ans : By its very nature, ecology is a rnultidisciplinary science. It involves plant and animal biology, taxonomy, physiology, genetics, behavioral science, meteorology, pedology, geology, sociology, anthropology, physics, chemistry, mathematics and electronics. Often, it is very difficult to draw a sharp line between ecology and any of the above disciplines since all impinge on it. Exactly the same situation exists also within ecology, In order to understand the interactions between the organism and the environment, or between organisms, it is often difficult to separate behavior from physiology, adaptation from evolution and genetics, or animal ecology from plant ecology.
Historically, ecology developed along two lines, viz., the study of plants (plant ecology) and the study of animals (animal ecology). Plant ecology focuses on the relationship of plants to other plants and their environment. The approach of plant ecology is largely descriptive of the vegetational and floristic composition of an area and usually ignores the influence of animals on the plants. Animal ecology, deals with the study of population dynamics, population distribution, animal behavior and the relationships of animals and their environment. Because animals depend upon plants for food and shelter, animal ecology cannot be fully understood without a considerable background of plant ecology. This is particularly true in the areas of applied ecology like wildlife management.
Both plant and animal ecology may be approached as the study of the interrelations of an individual organism with its environment (autecology), or as the study of groups of organisms (synecology). In many ways, autecology is the classical study of ecology, which is experimental and inductive. Because autecology is usually concerned with the relationship of an organism to one or more variables like humidity, light, salinity or nutrient levels, it is easily quantified and lends itself to experimental design both in the laboratory and in the field. Autocology has, therefore, borrowed experimental techniques from physics, chemistry and physiology.
Synecology, is philosophical and deductive in nature. It is largely descriptive and not easily quantified. Some of the important concepts developed by synecology are those concerned with nutrient cycles, energy budgets and ecosystern developments. Synecology has strong ties with geology, meteorology and cultural anthropology. Synecology may be subdivided according to environmental types, e.g., terrestrial oraquatic ecology. Terrestrial ecology maybe further subdivided into forest, grassland, desert and arctic ecology. It concerns with such aspects of terrestrial ecosysterms as microclimate, soil chemistry, soil fauna, hydrologic cycles, ecogenetics and productivity. Terrestrial ecosystems are more influenced by organism and arc subject to much wider environmental fluctuations than aquatic ecosystems. Because the physical environment is so important in controlling the aquatic ecosystern, considerable attention is paid to the chemical and physical characteristics of the ecosystem, such as the current and the chemical composition of the water. By convention, aquatic ecology (known as limnology) is limited to stream ecology and lake ecology. Stream ecology concerns life inflowing waters, while lake ecology deals with life in relatively still water. Marine ecology, on the other hand, concerns life in open seas and estuaries.
Other ecological approaches concern specialized areas. The study of the geographic distribution of plants and animals is known as ecological plant and animal geography. The study of population growth and mortality, is known as population ecology. The study of the genetics and ecology of local races and distinct species is called ecological genetics. The study of the behavioral responses of animals to their environment is known as behavioral ecology. Investigations of the interactions between the physical environment and the organism belong to ecoclimatology and physiological ecology. The study of the groups of organisms is known as community ecology. The part of ecology concerned with the analysis and understanding of the structure and function ofecosystems by using applied mathematics, mathematical models and computer programs is known as systems ecology. Applied ecology, on the other hand, is concerned with the applications of ecological principles to the management of natural resources, agricultural production and problems of environmental pollution.
7.2 Write a short note on biosphere cycles.
Ans: The bio-sphere cycle may be defined as “the flow of various elements of the biosphere from environment to the organisms i.e., plants and elements and vice-versa.” In soil 90% of the nitrogen is organic obtained from decay of dead plants (biomass), animals and plants residue, faeces and urine of animals etc. It is hydrolyzed ammonium ion (NH4+)which is oxidized to no33. The bio-sphere cycle are broadly of three types as mentioned below :
1. Hydrological cycle 2. Gaseous cycle 3. Sedimentary cycle
7.3.1 What do you mean by 'Biosphere Cycle' ?
Ans : Biosphere means sphere of life. The idea of Biosphere was suggested by Austrian geologist Edward Suess nearly a century ago. At that time it was not a so important concept. Today, however, the biosphere has become the most important problem faced by man. The basic function of biosphere is that it supports life. It is estimated that biosphere contains more than three hundred and fifty thousand species of plants and eleven million animal species including man. The biosphere supplies the essential requirements for Society and Environment all those species such as plants, animal and human beings namely light, heat, water, food and living space etc.
Biosphere cycle : Maintenance of the biosphere is possible through constant recycling of materials between the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components .These cycles are as given below;
(i) Hydrological cycle : The path of water through environment is hydrological cycle
(ii) Carbon Cycle: Carbon serves two purposes in the environment ( I ) It is structural component of organic molecules and (2) the energy holding chemicals bonds it forms for energy storage.
(iii) Nitrogen cycle: Organisms cannot exist without amino acids, peptides, nucleic acids and proteins all of which are organic molecules containing nitrogen.
(iv) The Phosphorus cycle : Minerals become available to organisms after they are released fro rocks. Phosphorus cycle is one of the mineral cycle begins when phosphorus compounds are leached from rocks and minerals over long periods of time. I
(v) The Sulphur Cycle.-. Sulphur plays a vital role in organisms, especially as a minor but essential component of proteins. Sulphur compounds are in portant determinants of the acidity of rainfall, surface water and soil.
(vi) Oxygen Cycle: Oxygen is the main source of respiratory gas for all terrestrial organisms.
7.4 Explain in brief the carbon dioxide cycle.
Ans : Carbon is essential to life, carbon is the basic building block of the carbo-hydrates. Fats, proteins, DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleric Acid) and other organic compounds necessary for life.
The carbon-cycle is based on carbon-dioxide gas, which makes up0.036% of the volume of the troposphere and is also dissolved in water. Carbon dioxide is a basic components of nature’s thermostat. If carbon cycle removes too much CO2 from the atmosphere, the atmosphere will cool : if the cycle generates too much, the atmosphere, the atmosphere will get warmer . Thus, even slight changes in the carbon cycle can affect climate and ultimately the types of life that can exist in various parts of the planet.
Terrestrial producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere and aquatic producers remove it from the water. Then they use photosynthesis to convert, CO2 into complex carbohydrates such as glucose.
The cells in oxygen producers, consumers and decomposers then carry pit aerobic respiration. This breaks down glucose and other complex organic compounds and converts the carbon back to CO2 in the atmosphere or water for reuse by producers. This connection between photosynthesis in producers and aerobic respiration in producers, consumers, and decomposers circulates carbon in the biosphere and is a major part of the global carbon cycle. So the process of photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition and combustion (burning) or fossil fuels mainly maintains carbon cycle.
7.6 Explain in brief the main causes of eco-imbalance .
Ans : Causes of Eco-Imbalance : The Reasons which cause ecological imbalance are given below. : If beyond 30% of forest land area is resprted to tree-felling then eco-balance is disturbed about 95% of the land in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world are in the process of desertification.
Delineation means changing land into desert area.
1. Deforestation brings about erosion and soil movement. A large number to trees along the roadsides are falling down due to road construction. Improper road construction results in soil erosion that may lead to uprooting of large trees and degeneration of lower counts. This way it leads to serious ecological imbalances affecting adversely run-off factors, temperature gradient, and surface radiation.
2. Aerobic process accumulation enhancing need of BOD, COD and DO emanating from sewage and other wastes.
3. Industrial effluents and Agricultural discharges,
4. Automobiles. More than 40 lakhs surface transport moves on the roads of Delhi only.
5. lndustrial chimney. Thermal Power Stations, emission of flyash and dust from stone crushers.
6. Population and Gulf-war : A brief review of Gulf-war is described in a tabulated shape.

7.5 What are the adverse effects due to eco-imbalance ?
Ans : Some important polluted environment and imbalanced ecosystems are as follows :
(1) Ill effect on human health.
(2) Soil degradation.
(3) Desetification.
(4) Contamination of food .
(5) Trace substances in the troposphere.
(6) Genetic resource depletion
(7) Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer
(8) Global warming.

7.8 List and explain the pragmatic remedies to prevent eco-imbalance.
Ans: Remediesfor Eco-Imbalance: Some important strategies (programme and plans) for reducing the ecological imbalance in the world eco-system are given below:
(I) Road construction activities must be minimum on reserve forests in order to avoid and disturbance to natural wealth. It is better to consult an environmentalist prior to road construction.
(II) In order to avoid any geological havoc, blasting and chipping mountain slopes must be done under the instructions of geological investigators.
(III) Wood burning as a source of energy is very popular in those area where oil, gas and coal prices are very high. Besides this wood burning bring forth hazardous amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC due to inefficient and incomplete burning of wood. EPA (Environmental Pro tection Agency) recommend use of Wood Stoves nation wide (hilly areas and plains) to over-power eco-imbalance as a remedial measure and attempt deal burning.
(IV) Biogas is another way, the use of which can help in maintaining eco-balance. It is a source of renewable energy. I.I.T., New Delhi has develops technology of briquetting saw dust into smokeless fuel— a good and eco-friendly source of energy which yields Biogas and pynogas. Biogas is mainly produced from cattle dung, human excreta, straw, plant, leaves, paddy husk sludge, food industries and paper mills, Its use is good remedy for eco-imbalance besides being cheaper.
(V) Programme of social forestry must be taken upto the grass root level. The wastelands must be garlanded with trees, and valuable herbs and shrubs. The best example of social forestry is found in China where even single inch of wasteland is not left without plantation. Debris obtained during road cut-tings must be accumulated at some appropriate place and plantation must be done on the same.This plantation will help in retaining the natural environment.
Plantation must be done along the banks of rivers, nallaha etc. in order to avoid any further cutting of soil and to protect the water reservoir and dams from more siltation, Small water tanks along with the proper drainage system must be constructed along the roadsides in order to protect both flora and fauna.
(Objective/Short Type)
7.9 Give a suitable definition of ecology.
Ans : A.Mac fadyen : “Ecology is a science which concerns itself with the inter-relationships of living organisms, plants and animals and their environments’
S.C.Kendeigh : “ Ecology is the study of animals and plants in their relation to each other and to their environment.”
7.10 what is food chain?
Ans : Ecosystems function by maintaining a flow of energy and a cycling of nutrients through a series of steps of eating and being eaten, of utilization and conversion, which is known as food chain.
7.11 what are the decomposers?
Ans: Microconsumers or decomposers small heterotrophs, mainly the bacteria and fungi, which decompose the dead remains of plants and animals, utilize a part of the products of this decomposition for their own nourishment and, in the process, release simple substances which can be reutilized as nutrients by the producers.
7.12 Define detritus
Ans:
7.13 The abiotic components of the ecosystem are:
(a) Organic compounds (b) Microconsumers
(c) Inorganic substances (d) None of these.
7.14 Macronutrients are:
(a) Oxygen (b) Sulphur
(c) Chlorine (d) Sodium
7.15 Match the following:
(A) Ecology (a) MicTobes
(B) Biotic (b) Microclimate
(C) Synecology (c) Water
(D) Abiotic (d) Meteorology


7.16 Match the following:
(A) Biosphere cycle (a) Calcium carbonate
(B) Chlorophylis (b) Magnesium
(c) Sedimentary cycle (c) Biogeochemical cycle
(D) Oysters (d) Sulphur cycle
7.17 Write true or false:
Ans: An ecosystem may be a single tree. – True
7.18 Write true or false:
The chemosynthetic bacteria obtain energy from the sun. - False
Ans: The chemosynthetic bacteria obtain energy directly from chemical reaction
7.19 Write true or false:
Fungi, bacteria and animals can be called autotrophs.
Ans: Fungi, bacteria and animal can be called heterotropns.
7.20 Name the odd ones:
(a) Carbon dioxide cycle (b) Sulphur cycle
(c) Oxygen cycle (d) Nitrogen cycle
7.21 Fill up the blank:
During photosynthesis, atmospheric co2 is incorporated into the
production of the carbohydrate which i& known as Glucose (C6 H12 O6)
7.22 Fill up the blanks :
Fats are formed by the elements carbon , hydrogen and oxygen.